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Page. 


LESSON  I. 

A  Sentence, 
Subject, 
Predicate, 
EzerciseB. 

LESSON  IL 


Sentences,  1 

Simple,  1 
Co-ordinate  Connective,  2 

Complex,  2 

Compound,  2 

Bxercisea,  3 

LESSON  IIL 

Clausee,  2 

Leading  Clause,  2 

Co-ordinate    "  3 

Subordinate   "  3 

Excrciaes,  3 

LESSON  IV. 

Kinds  of  sentences,  3 

Affirmative,  3 

Subfirmative,  3 

Interrogative,  3 

Exclamative,  4 

Imperative,  4 

Petitionative,  4 

Exercises,  4 

LESSON  V. 

Construction  of  Subject 

and  Predicate,  4 

Exercises,  5 

LESSON  VL 

Elements  of  Sentences,    5 

How  many  Elements,  5 

Subtantive  elements,  5 

Noun,  5 

Pronoun,  5 

Verbal  elements,  5 

Verb,  5 

Klementa  continued,  6 


LESSON  VIL 


Adjective  elements,  6 

Adjective,  6 

Article,  6 

Participle,  6 

Adverbial  elements,  6 

Adverbv  6 

Connective  elements,  7 

Conjunction,  7 

Preposition,  7 

Moael  for  Elements,  7 

Exercises,  8 

LESSON  VIIL 

Elements  of  the  First, 
second,  and  third  class 

es,  9 

Phrase,  9 

Model,  9 
Exercises,                       10 


Paob.  Page. 

Exercises,  14 

LESSON  xin. 


LESSON  IX. 

Principal  and  Subordinate 
Elements,  10 

Modification  of  Subject 
or  predicate  Indirect- 
ly, 11 

Model,  11 

Exercises,  11 


Construction    of   ele- 
ments, 14 
Promiscuoas  Exercisee,  16 

LESSON  XIV. 

Monologic  Analysis,  16 

Characters  used,  16 

Connectives,  16 

Such  as  give  Clauses,  16 

do        Phrases,  16 

Co-ordinate,  16 

Subordinate,  17 

Exercises,  17 


LESSON  X. 

The   Subject— Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, or  Logical,  12 

Exercisee,  12 

LESSON  XI. 

The  Predicate,  Simple, 
Compound,  and  Com- 
plex, 12, 13 
Copula,  13 
Exercises,  13 

LESSON  XII. 

Possessive  and  Objec- 
tive elements,  14' 


LESSON  XV. 

Dendrology  or  Construc- 
tion of  Sentences,        17 

The  Trunk,  or  leading 
clause,  26 

The  Branch,  or  Subor- 
dinate members,  18 

LESSON  XVL 

« 

Dendrolog)'  continued,    18 

Order,  is 

Notation,  18 

Integrity,  19 

Rank,  19 

LESSON  XVIL 

Dendrology  continued,    20 
Position  20 

Sub  and  Super  Mem- 
bers, ao 
Illustration  by  Diagram,  21 
Exercises,  28 

•TV- 

LESSON  XVIIL 


Alligation, 

Diagram, 

Exercises, 


23 
24 
24 


CONTENTS. 


PART    II. 


Page 

LESSON  I. 

Language,  25 

LESSON  IL 

Grammar,  25 

Lottery,  26 

Division  of  Letters,  26 
Table    of  Elementary 

Sounds,  27 

LESSON  in. 

English  Grammar,  28 

LESSON  IV. 

The  Divisions  of  Gram- 
mar, 28,  29 

OrlhoCTaphy,  Etymolo- 
gy, Syntax,  and  Proso- 
dy, 20 

LESSON  V. 

Parts  of  Speech  or  Clas- 
sification of  Words,     29 

Primary  and  Secondary 
Words,  29 

Definition  of  the  Parts 
of  Speech,  30 

Exercises,  31 


Paqb 
LESSON  XIIL 

Modes  of  the  Verb,         39 
Diagram,    ^  40 


LESSON  VL 

Nouns, 


31 


LESSON  YII. 

Gender  and  Person,         32 

LESSON  vin. 

Number,  33 


LESSON  IX. 

Case, 


34 


LESSON  X. 

Parsing,  35 

Model^  36 

Exercises,  36 

LESSON  XL 

The  Verb,  36 
Division  of  the  Verl»,  37 
Transitive   and  Intran- 
sitive, 37 
Voice,  37 

LESSON  XIL 

The  Verb  Continued,  38 

Regular,  38 

Irregular,  38 

Auxiliary,  38 

Defective,  38 


)P; 


LESSON^XIV. 

Tenses  of  the  Verb,         41 
Diagram,  43 

LESSON  XV. 

Number  and  Person  of 
the  Verb,  44 

Personal  or  Verbal  ter- 
minations, 45 

Familiar  and  Solemn 
Style,  45 

LESSON  XVL 

Conjugation,  46 

Conjugation  of  the  verb 
To  Be,  56 

LESSON  XVIL 

Conjugation  of  the  verb 
Love,  50 

Passive   Voice,    how 
formed,  53 

LESSON  XVIIL 
Formation  of  Tenses,     54 

LESSON  XIX. 

List  of  Irre";ular  Verbs,  55 
Model  for  Parsing  the 

Verb,  59 

Exercises,  60 

LESSON  XX. 

Participle,  60 

Imperfect,  61 

Perfect,  61 

Pluperfect,  61 

Model,  61 

Exercises,  62 

LESSON  XXL 
Pronouns    or   Substi- 
tutes, 63 
Two  Classes— Personal 
and  Relative,                62 

LESSON  XXIL 

Declension,  63 

Diagram  of  Declension 

of  Pronouns,  64 

Model,  65 

Exercises,  65 

LESSON  XXIIL 

Relative,  or  Connective 
Pronouns,  66 


Paqb. 

LESSON  XXIV. 

Of  Whoever,  Whichev- 
er, What,  67 
Models,  67 
Exercises,  68 

LESSON  XXV. 

Article,  69 

Model  and  Exercises,     70 

LESSON  XXVI. 

Adjectives   or   Attri- 

buteSj  71 

Qualifying  Adjectives,    71 

LESSON  XXVII. 

Formation  of  the  De- 
grees of  Comparison,  72 
Illustrated  by  Diagram,  73 
Model  and  Exercises,*  73 

LESSON  XXVIIL 

Specifying  or  Limiting 

Adjectives,  '    75 

Model  and  Exercises,      75 

LESSON  XXIX. 

Adverbs  or  Modifiers,      75 
Four  Classes,  7iB 

Model  and  Exercises,      77 

LESSON  XXX. 

Prepositions,  77 

Model  and  Exercises,     78 

LESSON  XXXI. 

Conjunctions  or  Con- 
nectives, 79 
Models  and  Exercises,    79 

LESSON  XXXIL 

Interjections  or  Excla-         ^ 

mations,  80 

Model  and  Exercises,     80  fl| 

LESSON  xxxin.     ^ 

Cases  Independent,  Ab-        ^ 
solute,    and  Apposi- 
tion, 81  * 

Models  and  Exercises,    82 


Promiscuous  Exercises  82 

LESSON  XXXIV. 

Syntax,  84 

Government,  84 

Concord,  84 

Position,  84 


/ 


CONTENTS. 


IX 


LESSON  XXXV 

Rules  of  Syntax, 


LESSON   XXXVI. 

Rules  of  Syntax  with 
Notes ;  and  Sentences 
to  be  corrected,  88 

Excrcisee,  88 

LESSON  XXXVIL 

Rnlcp,  Notes,  and  False 

Syntax  continued,        SS 
Moclel  and  Exercises,      8;) 

LESSON  XXXVTTL 

False  Syntax  continued,  89 
Model  and  Exercises,      1)0 

LESSON  XXXIX. 

False  S\Titax  confin'd,    iKI 
Model  and  Exercises,      '.)'l 

LESSON  XL. 

False  Syntax  continued,  91 
Model  and  Exercises, 


Page.  Page. 

LESSON  XLIII 
The  same  continued,       9G 

LESSON  XLIV. 
Same  continued,        '      9 


Page. 


85 


92 


LESSON  XLL 


False  Syntax  contin'd.  *.);3 

3!wdrl  aiid  Exercises,  94 

LESSON  XLTL 

False  Syntax  contin'd.  9.") 

ilodels'and  Exercises,  !)j 


LESSON  XLV. 
Same  coutinued, 


98 


LESSON  XLVL 

Same  continued,  98 

LESSON  XLVIL 

Same  continued.  99 

To  be  corrected  by  the 

Diagram  of  Tirrie,       100 
Model  and  Exercises,    100 

LESSON  XLVIIL 

False  Syntax  Promiscu- 
ously Arranged,  101 


LESSON  XLIX. 

Colloquial    Inaccura- 
cies, 

LESSON  LX. 

Punctuation  or  Gnomo- 

nology. 
Comma', 

Rules  and  Remarks, 
Semicolon, 
Rules  and  Remarks, 
Colon, 


101 


105 
105 
106 
110 
110 
111 


Rules  and  Remarks, 

Ill 

Period, 

112 

The  Dash, 

112 

The  Parenthesis, 

113 

Interrogation  Point, 

113 

Exclamation  Point, 

113 

Brackets, 

113 

Quotation  Marks, 

113 

The  Caret, 

113 

The  Hyphen, 

113 

The  Ellipsis, 

114 

The  Index, 

114 

Accent, 

114 

The  Apostrophe, 

114 

The  Asterisk, 

115 

Marginal  Points, 

115 

LESSON  LL 

Capitals, 

115 

LESSON  LIL 

Versification, 

IIG 

Measure, 

11(3 

Verse, 

116 

Stanza, 

11« 

Common  Meter, 

116 

Short  Meter, 

110 

Long  Meter, 

117 

Blank  Verse, 

117 

Rhyme, 

117 

Scanning, 

117 

Eight  kinds  of  Feet, 

117 

Iambic  Verse, 

117 

Alexandrine, 

lis 

Trochaic  Verse, 

118 

Anapaestic  Verse, 

119 

Dactylic  Verse. 

120 

INTRODUCTION 

TO  THE 

Illustrative   and    Constructive   Grammar. 


PART  FIRST. 


LESSON  I. — OF  SENTENCES. 
What  18  a  SenUnce! 

A  Sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact ;  as,  The  sun  shines. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  assert  a  fact  ? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate. 

What  is  the  Subject  of  a  Sentence? 

It  is  that  of  which  something  is  said. 

What  is  the  Predicate  f 

It  is  that  which  is  said  of  the  subject. 

Which  is  the  subject  in  the  foregoing  sentence,  "  the  sun  shines  ? 

Sun. 

Why? 

Because  something  is  said  of  it. 

What  is  said  of  it? 

•    Shines. 

What  then  is  shineil 

It  is  the  Predicate. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  said  or  affirmed  of  the  subject,  #wm. 
EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Subjects  and  Predieates  in  the  following  sentences  :] 

Boys  play.     John  reads.     Mary  studies.     Birds  sing. 
Flowers  bloom.     Trees  grow.     Fishes  swim  in  the  sea. 


LESSON  II. 


OF  SIMPLE,  COMPOUND,  AND  COMPLEX  SENTENCES. 
What  is  a  Simple  Sentence  ? 

A  Simple  sentence  has  but  one  subject  and  predicate, 
asserting  one  fact  only  ;  as,  Rivers  flow. 


-:  YORK  3  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

What  18  a  Coajpound  sentence  ? 

A  Compound  sentence  consists  of  two  or  more  simple 
sentences,  united  by  a  coordinnte  connective  ;  a?,  Wheat 
groviS,  and  men  reap  it. 

\TLat  do  30U  understand  by  a  co-ordinate  connective? 

A  co-ordinate  connective  unites  two  clauses  or  elements 
of  equal  rank  in  construction. 

Whht  is  a  Conipiux  feutoncc.^ 

A  Complex  sentence  must  contain  at  least  one  leading 
clause,  and  one  subordinate,  or  modifying  one  ;  as,  The 
boy  ivho  studies,  will  improve. 

'.V'hicb  is  the  leading  clause  ia  this  sentence  ? 

The  boy  will  improve. 

WL'.c'a  is  the  Subordinate  or  modifying  clause  ? 

Who  studies. 

Why  is  this  called  the  Fubordinate  or  modifying  clnnse  .* 

Because  it  is  not  only  incapable  of  making  sense  of 
itself,  but  it  also  modifies  the  subject  of  the  leading  clause. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  cut  the  Simi>lc,  Compound,  and  Complex  pcntcnces.] 

The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole  the  young  ones. 
Flowers  grow  in  the  gardens.     The  bird  which  sung  so 
sweetly,  has  flown.     John  has  a  new  book.     When  he 
comes,  we  shall  hear  the  news.     John  reads;  and  James- 
writes. 


LESSON   IJI. 

OF  CLAUS i:s. 


What  is  a  Claude  ? 

A  clause  is  a  subdivision  of  a  sentence,  containing  a  sub- 
ject and  prodicaie. 

Hjw  many  kinds  of  clau.'^es  arc  there  ? 

There  are  three  kinds,  viz:  ihc  leading,  the  co-ordinate, 
and  the  subordinate,  or  modifying. 

"What  is  the  leadinj;  clau-e  ? 

The  leading  clause  generally  stands  first  in  the  sentenc. 
and  contains  the  principal  subject  and  predicate. 


c^  * 


jr- r-'-eONSTRUCTIVE   gMM^AR^  /    /s 

Waat  13  the  co-ordinato  clause  ? 

The  co-ordinate  clause  is  equal  in  rank  to  the  leading 
clause,  and  can  make  sense  independent  of  it. 

What  is  the  sxib ordinate,  or  modifying  clause  ? 

The  subordinate  is  inferior  in  rank  to  the  loading  clause,- 
and  incapable  of  making  sense  without  it.  The  following 
sentence  contains  a  clause  of  each  kind  ;  ''  The   sceip-  *'" 

TURES  CONTAIN    THE    REVEALED   WILL  OF   GOD  ;    they   were 

ivritten  at  different  periods^  hy  holy  men  who  wrote  as  they 
were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost." 

You  will  perceive  that  the  leading  clause  is  in  small 
capitals,  the  co-ordinate,  in  italics,  and  the  subordinate,  in 
roman  letters. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  clauses  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Henry  works  ;  and  John  plays.  Eliza  will  improve,  if 
she  study.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when  the  messeno-er 
arrives.  James  is  a  good  boy,  and  he  learns  well.  The 
boy  who  does  not  study,  will  not  improve. 

LESSON  IV. 

OF  AFFIRMATIVE,  SUBFIRMATIVE,  INTERROGATIVE,  EXCLAM- 
.ATIVE,    IMPERATIVE,    AND   PETITIONATIVE   SENTENCES. 
What  is  an  AflBrmative  sentence? 

An  Affirmative  sentence  expresses  the  highest  degree  of 
affirmation  or  verbal  force ;  as.  Snow  is  white. 

What  is  a  Subfirmative  sentence  ? 

A  Subfirmative  sentence  expresses  a  less  degree  of  ver- 
bal force  than  the  affirmative ;  as.  The  reporter  may  have 
been  mistaken.     If  Mary  study,  she  will  improve. 

What  is  an  Interrogative  sentence  ? 

An  Interrogative  sentence  contains  a  question;  as,  Is 
Henry  at  home  ?     Who  wrote  that  ? 

How  many  kincs  of  Interrogative  sentences  are  there  t 

Two,  viz  :  Direct  and  Indirect. 

When  is  a  question  Direct  ? 

When  the  question  is  asked  with  a  verh^  the  answer  being 
yes  or  no ;  as,  Is  he  at  home  ?     No, 


4  York's  illustrative  akd 

When  is  ft  Indirect .' 

When  the  question  is  asked  with  an  adverb  or  Interrog- 
ative pronoun  ;  as,  WTiere  is  thy  home  ?   Who  art  thou  ? 

What  is  an  Exclamatire  ■•ntence  .' 

An  Exclamative  sentence  expresses  some  feeling  or 
emotion  together  with  the  affirmation  ;  as,  How  cold  and 
feeble  is  my  love  !     0  that  I  had  a  hiding  place ! 

What  is  an  Imperatire  sentence  ? 

An  Imperative  sentence  contains  a  command ;  as,  "  Go 
ye  into  all  the  world." 

What  is  a  Petitionative  sentence  ? 

A  Petitionative  sentence  contains  &  petition;  as,  "For- 
give us  our  debts." 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  kinds  of  sentences  in  the  foUowinf  :] 

May  I  go  ?  May  the  Lord  prosper  your  ways  !  Boys, 
attend  to  your  studies.  He  is  at  home.  Whither  shall  I 
fly  ?  If  he  study,  he  will  improve.  I  may  have  said  it. 
Who  can  abide  his  coming.    Washington  was  a  patriot. 


LESSON   V. 

CONSTRUCTION   OP  THE   SUBJECT   AND   PREDICATE. 
How  is  the  Subject  oonatmad  in  affirmatire  and  Sub>firmative  eentenoeB  f 

It  is  generally  construed  before  the  predicate  ;  oi,  Flow- 
ers bloom.  The  husbandman  is  happy,  if  he  knows  his  ad- 
vantages. 

How  is  the  Subject  oonstrned  in  Interrogatire  sentences  ? 

It  is  generally  construed  after  the  predicate,  or  between 
its  parts  ;  as,  Is  Mary  at  home  ?    Does  he  know  me  T 

How  is  it  construed  in  Exclamatire  sentences  ? 

Generally  c^er  the  predicate  ;  as,  fiow  short  is  life  f 

How  is  the  Subj«et  construed  in  Imperative  and  PedtionatiTe  eentenoes  t 

It  is  construed  after  the  predicate  ;  as,  Go  thou.  For- 
give thou  us  our  trespasses. 

Rem.  The  subject  is  generally  understood  in  such  sen- 
tences as  the  last. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  5 

EXERCISES. 

"[Point  out  the  construction  of  the  Subject  in  the  following  sentences.] 

Wolves  howl  in  the  woods.  Dogs  bark.  If  the  boys 
"Study,  they  will  improve.  Has  John  lost  his  pencil  ?  Is 
Mary  studious  ?  Obey  my  precepts.  Pity  thou  me.  How 
poor  is  gold  !     How  swiftly  time  glides  ! 


t 
LESSON  VL 

OP    THE   ELEMENTS   OF   SENTENCES, 

An  Element  is  a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

How  many  Elements  are  there  ? 

There  are  five,  classified  according  to  th'e  office  they 
perform  in  the  sentence. 

What  are  they  called? 

Substantive,  Verbal,  Adjective,  Adverbial,  and  Connec- 
tive, 

How  would  yon  define  a  Substantive  element  ? 

Substantive  elements  are  the  names  of  things,  or  their 
substitutes,  or  whatever  can  be  made  the  subject  of  affir- 
mation. 

What  do  Substantive  elements  embrace  ? 

All  nouns  and  pronouns. 

What  do  you  mean  by  a  noun  ? 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  anything  ;  as,  Man,  Raleigh. 

What  by  a  Pronoun  ? 

A  Prone  an  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun;  as,  he, 
she,  it. 

What  are  Verbal  elements  ? 

Verbal  elements  are  such  as  affirm  or  express  action. 

What  do  they  embrace  ? 

All  verbs  and  their  variations. 

What  is  a  verb? 

A  Verb  asserts  or  affirms ;  as.  The  bird  flies, 
2 


6  rfORK'a  ILiUSTRATIVE  AKI> 

LESSON  VII. 

1LEMBJ?TS   CONTINUED. 
Wbat  arc  adjective  elements? 

Adjective  elements  limit  substantive  elements ;  as,  Fair 
ladies  ;  men  of  inisine  s. 

What  do  Adjective  elements  embrace? 

They  embrace  all  adjectives,  articles,  and  participles. 

What  is  an  adjective  ? 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun,  to  express  it» 
quality^  or  limit  its  meaning ;  as,  a  studious  boy ;  that 
book. 

What  ii  an  Article  ? 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  their 
signification  ;  as,  A  man;  the  men. 

Remark. — It  will  be  perceived  by  the  pupils  that  the 
article  difi'ers  but  little  from  the  specifying  adjective ;  some 
authors  have,  therefore,  classified  it  with  the  adjective. 

What  is  a  Participle  ? 

A  particle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakea 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective ;  as,  I 
see  a,  man  ivalking. 

Rem. — Such  phrases  and  clauses  as  limit  substantive 
elements,  are  also  included  in  Adjective  elements. 

What  are  Adverbial  elements  ? 

Adverbial  elements  limit  the  Predicate  or  some  other 
verbal  element. 

What  do  they  embrace? 

They  embrace  all  adverbs,  phrases,  and  clauses  used 
adverbially. 

What  is  an  Adverb? 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  a  verb,  participle, 
adjective,  or  adverb  ;  as,  a  very  good  ptn  writes  extreniely 
well.     The  bird  was  singing  sweetly. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  "  7 

What  are  Connective  elements  ? 

They  are  such  as  unite  other  elements  in  current  dis- 
course. 

What  do  they  embrace  ? 

They  embrace  cxjnj unctions,  prepositions,  relative  pro- 
nouns, and  connective  adverbs. 

What  is  a  Conjunction  ? 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  used  to  connect  words  or  clauses 
of  sentences ;  as,  James  and  John  are  at  home. 

What  is  a  Prep  osition  ? 

A  Preposition  is  use<i  to  connect  words,  and  show  the 
relation  between  them ;  as,  Henry  went  into  the  country. 


MODEL. 


"The  lowering  clouds  move  slowly." 

This  is  a  simple  sentence ;  because  it  contains  a  single 
subject  and  predicate. 

The  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  kind,  and  limits 
the  element  clottds  by  pointing  it  out  definitely. 

Lowering  is  an  adjective  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
limits  clouds  by  pointing  out  what  clouds  are  meant. 

Clouds  is  a  substantive  element,  and  is  the  subject  of  this 
proposition ;  beoaase  something  is  said  of  it. 

Move  is  a  verbal  element,  and  is  the  predicate  of  this 
sentence ;  because  it  is  said  of  the  subject,  action  being 
predicated. 

Slowly  is  an  adverbial  element  of  the  first  kind,  and 
modifies  the  predicate  move  by  pointing  out  the  manner  of 
its  action. 

"What  part  of  speech  is  the  ? 

It  is  the  Definite  Article. 

Why? 

iiecause  it  limits  the  noun  clouds  to  a  particular  collec- 
tion of  clouds. 


8  York's  illustrative  and 

What  part  of  apeeoh  is  lowering  ? 

It  is  an  Adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  noun  cloudSj  to  express   its 
quality. 

What  kind  of  an  adjective  is  it? 

It  is  a  qualifying  adjective. 

Why? 

Because  it  expresses  quality. 

What  part  of  speech  is  clouds  ? 

It  is  a  noun. 
Why? 

Because  it  is  a  name. 

What  sort  of  a  noun  is  it? 

It  is  a  Common  Noun. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of  things. 

IFhat  is  move  ? 

A  verb. 

Why? 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms. 

What  is  slowly  ? 

It  is  an  Adverb. 

Why? 

Because  it  is  added  to  the  verb  movey  to  modify  its 
meaning. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  parts  of  speech  as 
exhibited  in  the  above  Model  ] 

Those  tall  trees  wave  gracefully.  Good  men  sometimes 
suffer  adversity.  Careless  boys  learn  their  lessons  badly. 
John  sees  a  man  walking  slowly.     Those  mountain  tor- 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  9 

rents  run  rapidly.     Those  little  birds  sing  sweetly.     The 
trumpet  sounds  loudly. 


LESSON  VIII. 

Of  Elements  op  the  First,  Second,  and  Third  Classes. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  First  Class  ? 

An  element  of  the  First  class  is  a  single  word,  used  as 
a  constituent  part  of  a  sentence. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Second  Class  ? 

It  is  a  Phrase,  used  as  an  element  of  the  sentence. 

What  is  a  Phrase  ? 

A  Phrase  consists  of  two  or  more  words  closely  united, 
and  modifying  some  other  element,  but  it  contains  no  af- 
firmation. 

What  is  an  element  of  the  Third  Class  ? 

It  is  a  subordinate  clause,  used  as  an  element  of  the  Sen- 
tence. 


MODEL. 


That  noble  General  who  had  gained  so  many  victories, 
died  at  last,  in  prison. 

That  is  an  Adjective  element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
limits  General  by  pointing  it  out  definitely. 

Nolle  is  an  Adjective  element  of  the  First  Class,  and 
limits  General  by  expressing  its  quality. 

General  is  a  Substantive  element,  and  is  the^  Subject  of 
this  proposition  ;  because  something  is  said  of  it. 

Who  had  gained  so  many  victories,  is  an  Adjective  ele- 
ment of  the  "^  Third  Class,  and  limits  General  by  pointing 
Dut  what  General  is  meant. 

Died  is  a  Verbal  element,  and  is  the  Predicate  of  thia 


10  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

sentence  ;  because  it  is  affirmed  of  the  subject,  action  be- 
ing predicated. 

At  last,  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the  Second  Class, 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  died  by  pointing  out  the  time 
of  the  event. 

In  p'ison,  is  an  Adverbial  element  of  the  Second  Class, 
and  modifies  the  Predicate  died  bj  pointing  out  the  scene 
of  its  action. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyze  the  following  sentences,  and  point  out  the  parts  of  speech  as  in 
the  foregoing  Lessons  ] 

Mary  walked  into  the  country.  A  beam  of  tranquility 
often  plays  around  the  heart  of  a  truly  pious  man.  The 
student  who  studies  his  lessons  closely,  will  improve  rap- 
idly. A  winding  stream  murmured  through  the  grove. — 
The  sun  shines  upon  the  fl  cor.  Henry  Clay  was  a  dis- 
tinguished orator.  Paul  was  eminent  for  his  zeal.  Chil- 
dren play  upon  the  green  grass. 


LESSON  IX. 

OF    PRINCIPAL  AND   SUBORDINATE   ELEMENTS. 
What  are  Principal  Elements  ? 

The  Subject  and  Predicate. 

ffhy? 

Because  no  sentence  can  exist  without  them. 

What  are  Subordinate  Elements  ? 

They  are  such  as  limit  the  subject  or  predicate,  either 
directly  or  indirectly. 

Why  are  they  called  Subordinate  ? 

Because  they  are  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the  exist- 
ence of  a  sentence  ;  but  arc  of  subordinate  use,  being  em- 
ployed to  express  some  circumstance  of  a  fact.^ 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  11 

What  is  meant  by  modifying  tbe  aubjeot  or  predicite  indirectly  ? 

When  an  element  modifies  either  the  subject  or  the  pre* 
dicate  through  the  medium  of  some  other  element,  it  is  said 
to  modify  it  indirectly. 

Can  you  give  an  example  to  illustrate  this  ? 

"A  very  cold  day  is  very  unpleasant." 

Very,  in  this  example,  modifies  unpleasant  directly,  and 
day  indirectly  ;  since  unpleasant  limits  day,  and  very  the 
adjective  unpleasant. 

To  what  part  of  speech,  then,  does  very  belong  ? 

In  such  constructions,  it  is  generally  called  an  Adverb ; 
but,  more  properly  speaking,  it  is  a  Secondary  Adjact've. 


MODEL. 


*■'•  My  gold  pen  writes  extremely  well." 

Pen  and  writes  are  Principal  elements  ;  because  they 
are  essential  to  the  existence  of  the  sentence ;  all  the  oth- 
ers are  Subordinate.  The  element  extremely  limits  the 
predicate  writes  indirectly  through  the  medium  of  the  ele- 
ment weU  ;  it  may,  therefore,  be  called  a  Secondary  Ad- 
verb. 

EXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  discriminate  between  Principal  and  Subordinate  elements, 
and  point  out  such  elecaents  as  limit  the  Principal  ones  indirectly,  ae  exhib- 
ited in  the  above  Model.] 

A  wise  man  is  very  useful.  Eliza  is  very  handsome. — 
John  is  tenacious  of  his  opinions.  The  sun  shines  very 
pleasantly.  Mary  walks  very  gracefully.  A  very  good 
pen  writes  extremely  well.  Peter  has  too  much  confi- 
dence. 


12  York's  illustratr-e  ani> 

LESSON  X. 

ON   THE   SUBJECT, — SIMPLE,    COMPOUND,   AND   COMPLEX. 

Your  attention  was  oalled  to  the  aubject  in  Lesson  let;  now  can  you  teli 
me  what  the  subject  is  ? 

The  Subject  is  that  of  which  something  is  said,  and  ap- 
pears to  be  a  kind  oi  foundation  word. 

Now  tell  me  what  you  understand  by  a  simple  subject? 

The  subject  is  Simple  when  it  consists  of  a  single  word; 
as,  John  writes. 

When  is  the  f-'.ibject  Compound  ? 

When  it  consists  of  one  or  n;ore  elements  co-ordinately 
united ;  as,  Henry  and  William  obey  their  teacher. 

"When  is  it  Complex  ? 

It  is  Complex  when  it  is  limited  by  an  element  of  the 
second  or  third  class  ;  as,  The  day  of  vengeance  is  at  hand* 

Rem. — The  Complex  subject  is  generally  called  the  Log- 
ical subject. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Subjects,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Srmple>  Compound,  or 
Complex.] 

Birds  fly  in  the  air.  John  of  Boston  has  returned. — 
James  and  Joseph  reside  in  New  York.  The  boy  who 
studies,  will  improve.  Eliza  is  handsome.  Mary  and 
Martha  went  to  the  grave. 


LESSON  XL 

OF    THE     PREDICATE — SIMPLE,     COMPOUND,   AND   COMPLEX. 

As  the  Predicate  is  a  very  important  element,  we  will 
call  your  attention  to  it  again. 

Can  you  tell  me  what  the  Predicate  is  ? 

The  Predicate  is  that  which  is  affirmed  or  denied  of  the 
subject. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  13 

Then  is  anything  tho  Predicate,  that  can  be  said  of  the  Subject  ? 

It  is. 

A  Verb,  Adjective,  Noun,  or  Pronoun,  can  be- said  of  the  Subject;  can  all 
these  parts  of  speech  be  Predicate  ? 

Certainly ;  for,  of  the  subjeet,  may  be  predicated  Ac- 
tion, Quality,  or  Identity;  as,  Peter  walks,  (Action); 
Solomon  was  ivise,  (Quality) ;  John  u  a  student,  (Identity.) 

Rem. — The  verb  "  to  5g,"  in  Logic,  is  called  the  Copula, 
but,  in  Grammar,  it  is  generally  regarded  as  a  part  of  the 
Predicate. 

When  is  the  predicate  simple  ? 

It  is  simple  when  it  consists  of  one  element;  as,  the 
hivdi  flies. 

Rem. — The  verb,  in  such  examples,  is  said  to  include 
both  the  Copula  and  Predicate,  and  is  equivalent  to  "  the 
bird  is  flying.'' 

When  is  the  predicate  Compound? 

It  is  compound  when  it  is  composed  of  two  or  more 
elements,  united  by  a  co-ordinate  connective ;  as,  King- 
doms rise  and  fall. 

When  is  it  Complex? 

It  is  complex  when  limited  by  an  element  of  the  second 
or  third  class  ;  as,  Isaac  walked  into  the  field. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Predicates,  and  tell  whether  they  are  Simple,  Compound,  or 
Complex,  also  whether  Action,  Quality,  or  Identity  is  predicated  ] 

The  rivers  flow.  Flowers  bloom  in  the  spring.  Susan 
walks  and  talks.  She  is  wise.  Washington  was  prudent. 
Henry  is  a  student.  James  walks  through  the  fields.  The 
girls  walk  into  the  garden.  David  was  pious  and  brave. 
We  shall  hear  the  news  when  he  comes. 


14  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XII. 

OF  POSSESSIVE   AND   OBJECTIVE   ELEMENTS. 
What  is  the  Poasessivo  element  ? 

^  When  one  substantive  element  limits  another  by  deno- 
ting Possession,  it  may  be  called  the  Possessive  element ; 
as,  John's  book. 

Rem. — Since  John's  limits  book  by  pointing  out  the 
thing  possessed,  it  might,  properly  enough,  be  called  an 
Adjective  element ;  but,  as  in  parsing,  we  call  John's  a 
Noun  in  the  Possessive  case,  it  is  better,  perhaps,  to  call 
it  the  Possessive  element. 

What  is  an  Objective  element? 

When  a  substantive  element  limits  the  predicate  or 
verbal  element,  it  is  called  the  Objective  element;  as, 
Peter  struck  Thomas, 

When  the  Objective  element  limits  the  predicate  or  verbal  element,  what 
does  it  point  out? 

It  points  out  the  object  of  its  action.  Thomas,  for  in- 
stance, in  the  foregoing  sentence,  points  out  the  object  of 
the  action,  expressed  by  the  verbal  element  struck. 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  Poesoesive  and  Objective  elements  in  the  following  sen- 
tences.] 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Mary  tore  Eliza's  book. 
James  hid  Susan's  bonnet.  The  boy  lost  the  girl's  gloves. 
Henry  wants  Sylvester's  dog.  Peter  has  lost  his  book. 
Jane  left  her  shawl. 


LESSON  XIII. 

OP   THE   CONSTRUCTION   OF   ELEMENTS. 
What  do  you  understand  by  the  construction  of  Elements? 

The  order  in  which  elements  are  arranged  in  a  sentence, 
is  called  Construction. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  15 

With  what  are  Adjective  elements  construed? 

With  subtantive  elements. 

When  Adjective  elements  of  the  first  class  are  assttmed  of  their  supers^ 
where  are  they  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  before  them ;  as,  a  toise 
man,     A  beautiful  lady.     A  studious  boy. 

When  such  elements  a.re  predicated,  how  are  they  constmod  ? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate  ; 
as,  she  is  handsoyne,     James  is  tall. 

Where  are  adjective  elements  of  the  second  or  third  class  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  substantive  ele- 
ment ;  as,  a  lady  of  prudence.     The  boy  who  studies. 

With  what  are  Adverbial  elements  construed  ? 

They  are  construed  with  verbal  elements. 

Can  any  precise  rule  be  given  for  the  construction  of  Adverbial  elements 
of  the  Jir«t  class  1 

No.  They  should,  however,  be  so  construed  as  will 
best  promote  the  euphony  and  perspicuity  of  the  sentence. 

How  are  Adverbial  elements  of  the  second  and  third  classes  construed? 

They  are  generally  construed  after  the  predicate,  or  be- 
tween its  parts ;  as,  happiness  or  misery  is,  in  a  great 
measure,  placed  in  our  own  hands.  Isaac  walked  into 
the  field. 


PROMISCUOUS  EXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  analyze  the  following  sentences  as  directed  in  preceding 
models.] 

Henry  resides  in  New  York.  The  young  ladles  who 
study  their  lessons,  improve  rapidly.  Mary  is  handsome. 
A  wise  man  is  useful.  The  lowering  clouds  are  moving 
slowly.  She  walks  in  the  garden.  A  man  of  studious 
habits  grows  in  knowledo;e.  The  sun  shines  throui^h  the 
Window. 


16  York's  illustrated  and 

LESSON  XIV. 

OF   MONOLOGIC  ANALYSIS    OF  SENTENCES. 
What  do  you  understand  by  MDnologic  Analysis  of  sentences? 

It  is  resolving  sentences  into  clauses  and  phrases. 

What  is  each  eleuient  called  ? 

It  is  called  a  member,  or  mono  as  denominated  by  Mr^- 
James  Brown   of  Philadelphia. 

What  characters  are  used  in  this  Analysis? 

The  loading  clause  is  inclosed  in  brackets,  and  all  others 
in  parentheses,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  example : 
[Elijah  smote  the  water]  (of  Jordan)  (with  hi&  mantle.) 

What  can  you  say  o'l  the  words  of  which  each  member  is  composed  ? 

They  have  an  inseparable,  constructive  relation  to  each' 
other,  and,  in  parsing,  they  must  be  disposed  of  in  their 
own  members  respectively. 

What  are  such  words  as  give  members,  called  ? 

They  are  called  member-givers. 

What  are  they  called  in  grammar,  generally  ? 

They  arc  generally  called  Conjunctions.  Connective 
Adverbs,  Relative  Pronouns,  and  Prepositions  ;  but  they 
might  all  be  included  in  one  general  term.  Connectives. 

How  may  these  connectives  or  member-givere  be  divided  ? 

They  may  be  divided,  first,  into  such  as  give  clauses  and 
phrases. 

Which  of  thom  give  clauses  ? 

Conjunctions,  Connective  Adverbs,  and  Relative  Pro- 
nouns, 

Which  phraser  ? 

PrepositionSo 

la  what  other  rospocts  may  they  be  divided? 

They  may  be  divided,  secondly,  into  Co-ordinate  and 
subordinate. 

How  would  yoa  Jofine  the  co-ordinate  connectives  ? 

The  Co-ordinate  connectives  arc  such  as  unite  clau;?'"... 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  17 

<or  members  of  equal  rank  in  construction.     They  are  a7id, 
^ut,  or,  nor,  and  ^et. 

How  would  you  define  the  Subordinates  ? 

The  subordinate  connectives  are  such  as  join  on  mem- 
bers of  subordinate  rank  in  construction. 

What  do  they  include  ? 

They  include  Relative  Pronouns,  Connective  Adverbs, 
Prepositions,  and  some  Conjunctions,  such  as,  if,  for, 
though,  &c. 

Rem. — Connectives  should  always  be  included  in  the 
members  which  they  give ;  but,  as  they  are  connectives, 
they  will,  of  course,  bear  some  relation  to  some  other 
imembers. 

EXERCISES. 

[Analyze  the  following  sentences  as  exhibited  in  the  above  example? 

The  sun  shines  through  the  window,  upon  the  floor.  The 
day  of  the  Lord  is  at  hand.  We  shall  hear  the  news  when 
the  messenger  arrives.  The  patient  had  died  before  the 
doctor  arrived.  The  young  lady  who  instructs  me  in 
grammar,  labors  faithfully.  John  has  gone  into  the  coun- 
try. Jesus  went  unto  the  mount  of  Olives.  Dagon  fell 
upon  his  face  before  the  ark  of  the  living  God. 

Rem. — In  exercising  the  class,  these  or  similar  sentences 
should  be  written  upon  the  black-board  or  slates. 


LESSON  XV. 

DENDROLOGY,    OR   CONSTRUCTION   OF   SENTENCES. 
What  ifl  the  literal  meaning  of  Dendrology  ? 

A  discourse  upon  trees. 

In  what  sense  is  it  here  employed  ? 

It  is  here  employed  in  an  accommodated  sense,  to  point 


18  York's  illustrative  and 

out  the  constructive  relation  which  the  members  of  a  sen- 
tence bear  to  each  other,  as  illustrated  by  the  frame-work 
of  a  tree. 

What  part  of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  Trunk  of  a  tree  ? 

The  leading  clause,  or  that  part,  which,  like  the  Trunk 
of  a  tree,  can  stand  alone,  or  make  sense  of  itself. 

What  elements  must  the  Trunk  or  leading  clause  contain? 

It  must  contain  the  subject  and  predicate,  and  all  ele- 
ments of  the  first  kind  which  modify  them,  if  any  are 
used. 

To  what  are  the  iubordinate  members  compared  ? 

They  are  compared  to  the  Brancliea  of  a  tree. 

Why? 

Because  as  the  Branches  of  a  Tree  depend  upon,  or  are 
supported  by  the  Trunk  ;  so  the  Subordinate  members 
depend  upon  the  leading  clause,  either  directly  or  indi- 
rectly in  construction,  as  illustrated  in  Diagram.  (See 
Lesson  XVII.) 


LESSON  XVI. 

DENDROLOGY,    OR   CONSTRUCTION  OF  SENTENCES  CONTINUED. 
How  many  Orders  of  members  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz :  Trunk  and  Branch. 

What  ia  meant  by  Notation  ? 

By  Notation,  is  meant  the  actual  expression  of  all  or 
anly  a  part  of  the  words  of  members. 

How  many  Notations  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz  :  Plenary  and  Implenary. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Plenary  Notation  ? 

It  is  Plenary  when  all  the  words  belonging  to  it,  are 
expressed ;  as,  [Henry  went]  (into  the  field.) 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  19 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Implenary  Notation  ? 

It  is  Implenary  when  part  of  the  words  belonging  to 
it,  are  not  expressed ;  as,  [He  gave  (me)  an  apple.]  That 
is,  He  gave  an  apple  to  me. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Integrity  of  a  member  ? 

Integrity  respects  its  entireness  or  unbroken  state. 

How  many  integrities  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz:  Perfect  and  Imperfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Perfect  Integrity  ? 

The  Perfect  Integrity  of  a  member  is  the  entireness 
produced  by  the  juxta-position  of  all  its  words ;  as,  [He 
gave  an  apple]  (to  me.) 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity? 

It  is  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  when  it  is  broken  by 
the  intervention  of  some  other  member ;  as,  The  laiv  (of 
the  Lord)  is  perfect. 

What  is  meant  by  the  Rank  of  a  member? 

The  Rank  of  a  member  respects  the  frame- w^ork  grade, 
which  the  sub-members  derive  from  their  supers. 

What  can  you  say  of  the  number  of  Ranks  ? 

The  number  is  indefinite — some  sentences  having  more, 
and  some  less. 

When  is  a  member  of  the  first  rank? 

It  is  of  the  first  rank  when  construed  with  the  Trunk 
member  or  leading  clause. 

When  of  the  second,  third,  &o.?| 

It  is  of  the  second  when  construed  with  one  of  the  first ; 
of  the  third  when  construed  with  one  of  the  second,  and 
so  on. 

How  should  the  Ranks  be  distinguished  ? 

By  figures  written  over  the  members;  as,  1,  2,  3,  &c. 


20  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XVII. 

DENDROLOGY  OR  CONSTRUCTION  OP  SENTENCES 
CONTINUED. 

What  does  the  Position  of  members  respect? 

The  position  of  a  member  respects  the  place  it  occupies 
with  respect  to  its  super-member  or  members. 

How  many  Positions  have  members  ? 

Three,  viz :  Juxta^  Disjuxta^  and  BinaL 

When  is  a  member  of  the  Juxta-position  f 

It  is  of  the  Juxta-position  when  construed  next  to  its 
super-member  ;  as,  [Martha  went]  {to  the  grave.) 

When  of  the  DiBjuxta-poaition  ? 

It  is  of  the  Disjuxta-position  when  it  is  separated  from 
its  super-member ;  as,  [Martha  went]  (with  Mary)  {to  the 
garve,) 

Rem. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  to  the 
grave,  is  construed  with  the  leading  clause,  Martha  went, 
but  it  is  separated  from  it,  by  the  interposition  of  the 
member,  wUh  Mary, 

When  is  a  member  of  the  BinaU-poaition  ? 

It  is  of  the  Binal-position  when  it  includes  both  the 
juxta  and  disjuxta  positions ;  as,  [Martha  was  the  sister] 
(of  Mary) ;  {but  she  was  not  the  sister)  (of  Eli^^abeth.) 

Hem. — The  learner  will  observe  that  the  member,  hut  she 
was  not  the  sister,  is  construed  with  both  the  members  that 
precede  it,  and  is  juxta  with  respect  to  one,  and  disjuxta 
with  respect  to  the  other ;  hence  it  is  said  to  include  both. 

What  is  meant  by  a  euper^member  f 

A  super-member,  in  rank,  is  directly  above  that  mem- 
ber which  is  annexed  to  it. 

What  is  a  etih-memher  t 

A  sub-member,  in  rank,  is  directly  below  the  member  to 
which  it  is  annexed. 

The  principles  unfolded  in  the  preceding  lessons,  on 
Dendrology  or  Construction,  in  which  the  verbal  frame- 
work of  a  sentence  is  compared  to  the  frame- work  of  a 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


21 


Tree,  may  be  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence  and  Di- 
agram. 

11  2  3 

[A  certain  Emperor  (of  China),  (on  his  accession)  (to  the  throne)  (of  hia 

1  2 

anoesters),  commanded  a  general  release]  (of  all  those)  (who  had  neen  im- 

3 
prisoned)  (for  debt.] 

A  certain  Emperor  com- 
manded a  general  release,  is  a 
member  of  the  Trunk  order, 
Plenary  notation,  Imperfect 
integrity,  and  of  the  Affirma- 
tive kind,  because  it  expresses 
the  hightest  degree  of  verbal 
force. 

Of  China,  is  a  member  of 
the  Branch  order,  Plenary 
notation.  Perfect  integrity, 
first  rank,  juxta-position,  and 
reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its 
super  ;  thus,  A  certain  Emperor  of  China  commanded  a 
general  release. 

On  his  accession,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Ple- 
nary notation.  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  disjuxta-posi- 
tion,  and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super.  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  on  his  accession. 

To  the  throne,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Plena- 
ry notation.  Perfect  integrity,  second  rank,  juxta-position, 
and  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for  its  super. — 
On  his  accession  to  the  throne. 

Of  his  ancesters,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Ple- 
nary notation,  Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-po- 
sition, and  reads  with  the  second  rank  for  its  super.  To 
the  throne  of  his  ancestors. 

Of  all  those  persons,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Im- 
plenary  notation,  Perfect  integrity,  first  rank,  juxta-posi- 
tion, and  reads  with  the  Trunk  for  its  super.  A  certain 
Emperor  commanded  a  general  release  of  all  those  persons. 
Who  had  been  imprisoned,  is  amember  of  the  Branch  or- 
der, Plenary  notation.  Perfect  integrity,  5e^o?icZ  rank,  jux- 


22  YORK*S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

ta-position,  and  reads  with  a  member  of  the  first  rank  for 
its  super.     Of  all  those  who  had  been  imprisoned. 

For  debt,  is  a  member  of  the  Branch  order,  Plenary  no- 
tation, Perfect  integrity,  third  rank,  and  juxta-position, 
and  reads  ^Yiih  the  second  rank  for  its  super.  Who  had 
been  imprisoned /or  debt. 

By  inspecting  the  Diagram,  the  learner  will  perceive  that 
branches  No.  1  depend  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
clause,  that  branches  No.  2  depend  directly  upon  No.  1, 
and  that  those  of  No.  3  depend  directly  upon  No.  2,  but 
that  all  depend  directly  or  indirectly  upon  the  Trunk  or 
leading  member. 

Which  ia  the  Trunk  or  leading  clause  in  the  foregoing  sentence? 

A  certain  Emperor  commanded  a  general  release. 

Why? 

Because,  like  the  Trunk  of  a  Tree,  it  can  stand  alone,  or 
make  sense  of  itself. 

Why  is  it  of  the  Plenary  notation  7 

Because  each  word  belonging  to  it,  is  expressed. 

Why  of  the  Imperfect  Integrity  ? 

Because  its  entireness  is  broken  by  the  member,  of 
China, 

Why  of  the  affirmative  kind  f 

Because  it  expresses  the  highest  degree  of  verbal  force. 

Why  iB  o»  hxa  accwatonof  the  Branch  order? 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  Trunk,  and  cannot  make 
sense  of  itself. 

TVhy  of  the  first  rank .' 

Because  it  depends  directly  upon  the  Trunk  or  leading 
member  for  its  super. 

Why  of  the  rft»/«a:^a-position  .' 

Because  it  is  separated  from  its  super,  or  the  member 
with  which  it  has  a  constructive  relation. 

Why  \b  the  member,  to  the  throne,  of  the  second  rank .' 

Because  it  depends  upon  the  first  for  its  super. 


<J®NSTR'X7CTIVE   •GRAMMAR.  j2S 

Why  is  the  memher,  of  his  cmoeetors,  of  the  third  rank  ? 

Because  it  depends  mpon  the  second  rank  for  its  super. 

Rem.  To  T'eacJiem,  The  Teacher  may  ask  similar 
questions  until  the  young  learners  become  familiar  with  all 
the  terms  used  in  this  nomenclature, 

EXERCISES, 

[Analyze  and  Conetrue  the  following  senteBces  as  exhibrlted  in  the  forego- 
ing Mod^als.]  * 

1  1 

[A  beam  (of  tranquility)  often  plays]  (around  the  heart*) 

2  1 

{of  the  truly  pious  man).    [Martha  went]  (with  Mary),  (to 

2  2 

the  grave)  (of  Lazarus).  [There  w&s  a  marriage]  (in  Cana) 
(of  Galilee).  [Dagon  fell]  (upon  his  face)  (before  the  ark) 
(of  the  living  God).     \^The  young  l<sdy  (who  instructs  me) 

2  12'' 

(in  Grammar),  liM}ei\  (in  the  city)  (of  New  York).  [Lot 
ied]  (with  his  two  daughters),  (to  the  mountains).  [Mary 
remained]  (in  the  house)  (with  the  Jews)  (who  had  visited 
her).  [Time  slept]  (on  flowers,)  (and  lent  his  glasses)  (to 
liope).    (On  that  night,)  [sleep  departed]  (from  the  king.) 

[The  Lord,  (into  his  garden,)  comes  ;] 

(The  spices  yield  a  rich  perfume ;) 

it 

(The  lillies  grow  and  thrive.) 

Rem. — After  the  class  has  been  fully  practiced  on  the 
above  exercises,  sentences  should  be  written  upon  the  black- 
board or  slate  without  the  analysis. 


LESSON  XVIIL 

OF  ALLIGATION   OF    SENTENCES. 
What  ifl  Alligation  ? 

It  is  the  art  of  combining  the  words  of  a  sentence,  by 


24  YORK'S  ILLUSTEATIVE  AND 

lines  which  indicate  the  govern7nenty  relation^  and  connec- 
tion of  the  several  parts. 

How  are  lines  which  indicate  gove'-nment  drawn  ? 

They  are  drawn  over. 

How  are  all  others  drawn  ? 

They  are  drawn  iinde?',  as  shown  in  the  following  Dia- 
gram: 


Line  1  shows  Henry  governs  werit,  and  reads  with  it — 
Henry  went.  Line  2  shows  with  connects  tvent  and  me, 
and  reads  with  them — went  with  me.  Line  3  shows  that 
toith  governs  me,  and  reads  with  it — with  me.  Line  4 
shows  that  to  connects  went  and  sJiip,  and  reads  with 
them — "svent  to  ship.  Line  5  shows  to  governs  ship,  and 
leads  with  it — to  ship.  Line  6  shows  that  the  belongs  to 
ship,  and  reads  with  it — the  ship. 

The  object  of  this  exercise  is  not  only  to  give  an  occu- 
lar  illustration  of  the  various  grammatical  connections  and 
relations  which  words  bear  to  each  other  in  a  sentence, 
but  also  to  show  that  words  which  are  grammatically  rela- 
ted to  each  other,  make  sense  when  read  together. 

EXERCISES. 

[Write  the  following  and  similar  sentences  on  slates  or  the  Black-board, 
and  give  the  alligation  as  exhibited  in  the  above  Diagram.] 

The  old  fox  heard  the  hunter's  horn  sounding.  Foxes 
kill  woinen's  geese.  I  see  a  man  walking  through  the 
fields.  The  day  glides  sweetly  o'er  our  heads.  That  old 
man  labors  in  the  field.  John  walked  with  his  sisters  to 
church.  Mary  studies  her  lessons  well.  The  moon  shines 
through  broken  clouds.  The  lowering  clouds  are  moving 
slowly.     Elizabeth  went  into  the  hill-country. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAE^  25 

PART     SECOND. 

LESSON  I. 

OF    LANGUAGE. 
What  is  language  ? 

Language  is  the  medium  through  which  mind  travels  to 
mind,  and  thereby  communicates  thoughts,  feelings,  de- 
sires, and  affections. 

Do  brutes,  in  any  sense,  possess  the  power  of  language  ? 

In  some  sense,  they  do  ;  since,  by  various  inarticulate 
sounds,  thev  make  known  their  wants  and  Bufferings. 

How  many  kinds  of  language  are  tbere  ? 

Two,  namely,  spoken  and  written. 

What  are  the  elements  of  spoken  language? 

They  are  simple  sounda,  uttered  by  the  human  voice. 

What  are  the  elements  of  written  language  ? 

They  are  letters  or  characters,  invented  to  represent 
simple  sounds. 

May  not  Jesticulation  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  language? 

It  may ;  since  men,  who  are  barbarians  to  each  other, 
can  understand  each  other  by  means  of  signs  or  jestures. 

Since  language  is  the  medium  of  communicating  thoughts,  is  it  not  im- 
portant that  it  should  be  understood/ 

It  is ;  and,  hence,  arises  the  necessity  of  studying  tho- 
roughly the  Grammar  of  the  language  which  we  employ 
for  such  medium  of  communication  of  thought. 


LESSON  II. 

OF  GRAMMAR., 

What  is  grammar.' 

Grammar  is  the  science  of  language,  or,  more  literally, 
the  science  of  letters,  or  the  science  of  sounds. 


26  yokk'^s  illustkativ"b  and* 

What  do  letters  represent  ? 

They  represent  simple  sounds. 

How  many  simple  sounds  are  there  in  the  Engli&h  language  T 

Thirty-eight. 

How  many  letters  or  signs  are  there  torepresent  these  sonnds  ? 

There  are  but  thirty-six  in  the  English  Alphabet. 

What  necessarily  follows  from  there  being  more  souads  than  letters  f 

Some  letters  must  represent  more  sounds  than  one. 

What  must  necessarily  arise  from  this  f 

Much  obscurity  and  many  provincialisms. 

How  many  letters  should  there  be  in  a  perfect  language  ? 

As  many  as  there  are  simple  sounds. 

How  are  the  letters  of  the  English  Alphabet  generally  divided  f 

Into  Vowels  and  Consonants. 

How  are  the  Consonants  sub-divided? 

Into  Mutes  ani  Semi-vowels- 

Is  this  division  founded  in  philosophic  truth  ? 

No  ;  for  every  sound  may  be  uttered  in  its  own,  indi- 
ridual,  and  elementary  character ;  yet,  it  is  said,  the  Mutes- 
cannot  be  soundJed  at  all  without  the  aid  of  a  vowel. 

What  would  be  a  more  philosophic  and  truthful  division  of  the  letters  of 
the  Alphabet  ? 

A  more  truthful  division  would  be  into  three  classes, 
viz :  Vowels  or  Tonics,  S^jb-vowels  or  Sub-tonics,  and 
Atonies  or  Aspirates,  as  exhibited  in  the  following  Table 
in  which  are  displayed  the  thirty-eight  elementary  sounds,, 
and  the  maainer  of  representing  them : 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR. 


27 


THIRTY-EIGHT   SIMPLE  SOUNDS. 


15  Vowels. 

14  Sub-vowels. 

9 

Aspirates. 

a 

m 

ale 

b 

in  bow 

P 

m  pm 

«• 

a 

a 

arm 

d 

"  duty 

t 

"   tin 

a 

16 

all 

g 

"  gay 

sh 

"  shade 

^ 

16 

an 

1 

"  love 

k 

"  kite 

e 

it 

eve 

m 

"  man 

s 

"  sin 

g 

(( 

end 

n 

"  no 

f 

"  fume 

i 

U 

ile 

ng 

"  song 

th 

"  thin 

i 

a 

in 

r 

"  roll 

h 

"  hat 

0 

(( 

old 

th 

"  thou 

wh 

"  what 

•  • 

0 

a 

lose 

V 

"  vow 

b 

66 

on 

w 

"  wo 

n 

<( 

tube 

y 

"  yoke 

n 

up 

z 

*'  zone 

u 

i( 

full 

z 

"  azure 

ou 

(( 

our 

Rem. — It  will  be  observed  that  j\  x,  and  ch  are  not 
found  in  the  above  table ;  the  reason  of  this  is,  they  do 
not  represent  simple  sounds,  but  compound  ones.  J  rep- 
resents the  sound  of  d  in  dai/  and  of  z  in  azure  ;  as,  Job, 
John,  &c. 

Rem.  to  Teachers.— It  is  not  intended  that  the  table  of 
elementary  sounds  should  be  committed  to  memory  by  the 
pupils .;  but  the  Teacher  should  utter  the  sounds  accurately 
in  their  elementary  character,  the  pupils  uttering  them 
after  him. 


28  York's  illustrative  and 

(For  furtlier  information  concerning  the  simple  sounds 
of  the  English  Language  and  the  Analysis  of  -^'ords,  the 
learner  is  referred  to  the  Illustratiye  and  Constructive 
Grammar,  Part  Second.) 


LESSON  IIL 

ENGLISH  GRAMMAR. 


What  is  English  Grammar' 

It  is  the  science  of  the  English  Language. 

What  does  it  comprise  ? 

It  comprises  both  a  Science  and  an  Art. 

M'hat  does  it  teach  as  an  Art? 

As  an  Art,  it  teaches  how  the  English  Language  should 
be  written  and  spoken. 

What  as  a  Science  ? 

As  a  Science,  it  teaches  why  one  form  of  speech  should 
be  used  rather  than  another. 

What,  then,  is  the  difference  between  Science  and  Art? 

Science  tells  tvJii/  a  thing  is  done ;  Art  how  it  is  done. 

What,  then,  -will  English  Grammar,  well  understood  both  as  a  Science  and 
an  Art,  enable  one  to  do  ? 

It  will  enable  one  to  speak  and  write  the  English  Lan- 
guage correctly. 


LESSON  IV. 

THE  DIVISION  OF  GRAMMAR. 
Into  how  many  parte,  is  Grammar  divided  ? 

Into  four,  viz :  Orthography,  Etymology,  Syntax  and 
Prosody. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  29 

What  does  Orthography  teach  ? 

The  name  and  power  of  letters,  and  the  art  of  spelling. 

Where  must  this  art  be  chiefly  acquired  ? 

From  the  Spelling-book  and  Dictionary. 

Of  what  does  Etymology  treat? 

Of  the  different  parts  of  speech,  their  various  inflections, 
and  the  derivation  of  words. 

What  does  Syntax  teach  ? 

It  teaches  the  correct  construction  and  arrangement  of 
sentences. 

Of  what  does  Prosody  treat  f 

It  treats  of  the  just  pronunciation  of  sentences,  and  the 
rules  of  versification. 


LESSON  V. 

PARTS  OP  SPEECH  OR  CLASSIFICATION  OF  WORDS. 
Into  how  many  Classes,  are  words  naturally  divided  ? 

Into  two,  namely,  Primary  and  Secondary. 

What  are  Primary  words  ? 

Those  that  are  essential  to  the  language  of  men,  to  which 
all  others  bear  a  subordinate  relation. 

What  parts  of  speech  are  they  ? 

The  Noun  and  Verb. 

Why  are  they  Primary  f 

Because,  of  these,  a  complete  proposition  may  be  con- 
structed ;  as,  God  is.    Time  flies. 

What  are  Secondary  words  ? 

They  are  of  subordinate  use  in  language,  sustaining  a 
branch  relation  to  the  Primary. 

How  many  sorts  of  words  or  Parts  of  Speech  are  there? 

There  are  ten,  viz  :  the  Noun,  Verb,  Participle,  Pronoun, 


30  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Article,  Adjective,  Adverb,  Preposition,  Conjunction,  and 
Interjection  or  Exclamation. 

Rem.  Grammarians  generally  name  nine  Parts  of  Speech, 
excluding  the  Participle  ;  but  we  see  no  sufficient  reason  foF 
this. 

What  is  a  Konn  ? 

It  is  the  name  of  anything ;  as,  Man,  virtue. 

What  is  a  Verb? 

A  Verb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  affirms,  or  expresses 
action;  as.  The  boy  reads.     The  child j>?a^«. 

TThat  is  a  participle  ? 

A  Participle  is  a  word,  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also  of  an  adjective  ;  but  de- 
pends upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  construction ;  as,  I  see- 
a  bird  fli/ing. 

What  is  a  Pronouni 

A  pronoun  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  and  gener- 
ally to  avoid  its  repetition ;  as,  James  reads,  and  he  will 
soon  read  well. 

What  is  an  Article .' 

An  article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns  to  limit  the  extent 
of  their  signification ;  as,  A  man.     The  boys. 

What  is  an  Adjective .' 

An  adjective  is  a  word  joined  to  a  noun  to  limit  its 
meaning,  or  express  its  quality  ;  as,  A  beautiful  lady.  That 
river. 

What  is  an  Adverb  1 

An  Adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of  verbs, 
participles,  adjectives,  and  other  adverbs ;  as,  Mary  writea 
ver^  well. 

What  18  a  Preposition  ? 

A  Preposition  is  a  word  generally  placed  before  some 
noun  or  pronoun  which  it  go.verns ;  it,  also,  shows  the  re- 
lation which  this  word  bears  to  some  other  word  which 
precedes  it  in  construction ;  as,  Henry  went  with  me* 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  31 

What  is  a  Conjunction  / 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word  which  joins  together  parts  of  a 
sentence,  or  parts  of  a  discourse  in  a  regular  construction  ; 
as,  John  goes  to  school,  and  learns  well. 

What  is  an  Interjection  or  Exclamation  f 

A.n  Exclamation  generally  expresses  some  emotion  of 
the  speaker,  but  has  no  dependent  construction ;  as,  "  Alas  \ 
and  did  my  Saviour  bleed?'* 

EXERCISES. 

[Point  out  the  different  parts  of  Speech  in  the  following  sentences.] 

The  river  flows  slowly.  The  sun  shines  by  day,  and  the 
moon  gives  light  by  night.  Henry  lost  his  hat.  Alas ! 
that  man  has  made  a  fatal  mistake.  I  see  a  man  walking. 
John  went ;  but  Peter  stayed. 


LESSON  VL 

OP  NOUNS. 

What  is  a  Noun  .' 

A  Noun  is  the  name  of  any  thing ;  as,  Man,  Virtue, 

How  many  kinds  ef  nouns  are  there  ? 

There  are  two,  viz:  Proper  and  Common. 

What  is  a  Proper  noun  ? 

A  Proper  noun  is  the  name  of  an  indiridual  per&on  or 
thing  ;  as,  Mary,  Delaware. 

What  is  a  Common  noun  ? 

A  Common  noun  is  a  name  common  to  a  whole  class  of 
persons  or  things ;  as  Man,  river. 

What  is  a  Common  noun,  comprising  several  persons  or  things  in  one  col- 
lective body,  called  .' 

A  Collective  noun,  or  Noun  of  raultitute ;  as,  Commit- 
tee, army. 


82'  York's  illustrative  and 

What  belong  to  Nouns  ? 

To  nouns  belong  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 


LESSON  VII. 

OF  GENDER  AND  PERSON. 
What  is  Gender  ? 

Gender  is  the  distinction  of  sex. 

How  many  sexes  are  there  ? 

Two,  viz:  Male  and  Female. 

How  many  Genders  are  there? 

Since  there  are  but  two  sexes,  strictly  speaking,  there 
are  but  two  genders. 

How  many  Genders  are  thought,  by  some  grammarians,  to  be  convenient 
in  parsing  ? 

Four,   viz:  Masculine,   Feminine,   Neuter,   and   Com- 
mon. 

What  does  the  Masculine  Gender  denote  ? 

The  Masculine  Gender  includes  all  males;  as,  Man, 
horse. 

What  does  the  Feminine  denote  ? 

The  Feminine  includes  ^\\  females  ;  as,  woman,  hen. 

"What  does  the  Neuter  include? 

The  Neuter  includes  such  as  have  no  sex ;  as.  Chair, 
river. 

How  may  the  Common  Gender  be  defined  ? 

Nouns  which  are  equally  applied  to  both  sexes,  are 
called  Common  Gender ;  as.  Friend,  child. 

Rem. — The  application  of  the  Neuter  and  Common 
Genders  in  parsing,  is  of  little  or  no  practical  utility; 
since  it  adds  nothing  to  the  sense. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  3 


o 


What  is  Person  in  grammar  ? 

Person    distinguishes   the   relation   of  a   noun    to    the 
speaker. 

IIow  many  Persons  have  nouns? 

Three,  viz  :  the  First,  Second,  and  Third. 

"What  does  the  First  Person  denote  .- 

It  denotes  the  speaker  ;  as  7,  Jolin^  saw  him. 

What  the  Second  Person  T 

The  Second  Person  denotes  the  person  or  thing  spoken  to 
or  addressed  ;  as,  James,  I  desire  t/ou  to  study. 

What  the  Third  Person  / 

The  Third  Person  denotes   the   person  spoken   of,  or 
about ;  as,  Peter  wept  bitterly. 


LESSON  VIII. 

OF   NUMBER. 
What  is  Number  ? 

Number  is  the  distinction  oi  unity  iindpluralitn/. 

How  many  numbers  have  nouns? 

Two,  viz :  the  Singular  and  Plural. 

What  does  the  Singular  number  imply  ? 

It  implies  unity,  or  but  one  ;  as,  A  hook^ 

What  does  the  Plural  number  denote  ? 

It  denoteB  plurality  J  or  more  than  one;  as,  Books. 

How  is  the  Plural  of  nouns  formed  ? 

The  Plural   is    generally  formed  by  annexing  s  or  es 
to  the  singular. 

When  is  «  on]y  annexed  / 

When  it  will  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  other  letters  ;  as, 
Table,  tables. 


34  York's  illustrated  and 

When  is  c«  annexec"  ? 

When  8  will  not  coalesce  in  sound  with  the  preceding  let- 
ters; as,  Branch,  5ranc7ie». 

Ifl  the  Plural  of  nouns  formed  in  any  other  way  1 

Yes,  in  various  ways. 

Mention  a  few  of  them. 

i.  Nouns  ending  in  y ,  preceded  by  a  consonant,  form  their 
plurals  by  changing  y  into  i,  and  annexing  es  ;  as,  Flj,  flies, 
Spy,  spies, 

2.  Fifteen  nouns  in  f  or  fe,  viz:  beef,  calf,  elf,  half, 
leaf,  loaf,  self,  sheaf,  shelf,  thief,  wharf,  wolf,  life, 
knife,  and  wife,  form  their  plurals  by  changing  /  into  v, 
and  annexing  es  or  s ;  as,  Beef,  beeves.  Wife,  ivives  ; 
other  nouns,  in  /  or,  fe,  form  their  plurals  in  the  regu- 
lar way:  as.  Dwarf,  dwarfs.  Handkerchief,  handker- 
'chiefs, 

3.  Some  nouns  are  very  irregular  in  the  formation 
of  their  plurals;  as,  Man,  men.     Child,  children^  &c. 

Do  Proper  nouns  adimit  of  a  plural  ? 

They  do  not ;  for,  in  such  case,  they  would  become  Com- 
mon; as,  The  twelve  Ccesars,     The  P/o^osoftheage. 


LESSON  IX. 

.      OP    CASE. 


What  is  meant  by  Case .' 

Case,  as  applied  in  Grammar,  distinguishes  the  rela- 
tion of  a  noun  or  pronoun  to  a  verb,  participle,  prepo- 
sition, or  another  noun. 

How  many  cases  have  nouns  and  pronouns  .' 

Three,  viz  :  the  Nominative,  Possessive,  and  Objective. 

TThat  relation  does  the  Nominative  Case  bear  to  the  verb  ? 

It  bears   the   relation  of  subject;  as,  John  walks;  it 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  35 

is,  also,    said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  when  predicated 
of  the  subject  ;  as  John  is  a  student.     It  is  L 

What  relatioa  does  the  Possessive  Case  show  / 

It  shows  the  relation  of  possession  or  ownership;  as,  Pe- 
ter^t  wife's  mother.     Henry's  horse. 

Rem.  Some  nouns,  having  the  Possessive /orw,  do  not 
imply  ownership  ;  they  are,  strictly  speaking,  Specifyin'^ 
Adjectives ;  as,  Harriet  makes  ladies'  bonnets.  Johnson 
sells  hoys'  hats. 

TVTiat  relation  doer  the  Objective  case  show  / 

The  Objective  case  shows  the  relation  of  an  object  and 
is  either  the   object  of  an  action^  or  of  a  relation  *  as 
Charles  struck  John  on  the  head. 

When  is  the  Objective  case  the  object  of  an  action  ? 

It  is  the  object  of  an  action  when  it  is  governed  by  a 
verb  or  participle. 

When  the  object  of  a  relation  ? 

It  is  the  object  of  a  relation  when  governed  by  a  prepo- 
sition; 


LESSON  X. 

OF  PARSING. 
What  is  Parsing  1 

In  Parsing  a  word,  I  first  name  the  part  of  speech  or 
class  of  words  to  which  it  belongs. 

What  next ! 

I  next  mention  the  properties  or  accidents  belonging  to 
the  word. 

What  else  ? 

I  then  state  its  agreement  or  government,  as  the  cas^ 
may  be,  and  quote  the  rule. 

I  will  now  present  you  with  a  Model  for  Parsing. 


86  York's  illustrative  and 

MODEL. 

James  loves  Mary's  sister. 

James  is  a  Proper  noun,  Masculine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  nominative  case  to  the  verb 
loves  J  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Loves  is  a  regular.  Transitive  verb,  Active  voice,  Indi- 
cative mode,  Present  tense,  and  of  the  third  person,  sin- 
gular number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  John,  accord- 
ing to  rule  6. 

Mary's  is  a  proper  noun,  feminine  gender,  third  per- 
son, singular  number,  and  in  the  possessive  case,  governed 
by  sister,  according  to  Rule  4. 

Sister  is  a  common  noun,  of  the  feminine  gender,  third 
person,  singular  number,  and  in  the  objective  case,  gov- 
erned by  the  verb  loves,  according  to  Rule  19. 

EXERCISES. 

Peter's  dog  bit  John's  finger.  Foxes  kill  women's  geese. 
Elza's  cat  caught  a  rat.  James  lost  Henry's  ball.  Rivers 
flow.  Birds  fly.  Arthur's  dog  killed  Henry's  cat.  Rab- 
bits eat  people's  peas.  Thomas  hurt  Robert's  finger.  Boys 
love  play. 


LESSON  XL 

OF  VERBS. 
What  is  a  Verb? 


A  Yerb  is  a  word  which  asserts  or  aflirms,  or  expresses 
acfion  ;  as,  The  river  jloivs.    He  went  to  join  the  army. 

p^E^t. — Perhaps  no  single  definition  can  fully  unfold  the 
varied  import  of  the  verb ;  but,  in  some  sense,  it  may  be 
said,  under  all  circumstances,  to  express  something  of  the 
nature  of  an  affirmation. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  37 

How  may  the  Verb  be  divided  ? 

It  may  be  divided  into  Transitive  and  Intransitive,  Re- 
gular and  Irregular,  Auxiliary  and  Defective. 

When  is  a  verb  Trinsitive  ? 

When  it  has  the  power  to  affect  an  object ;  as,  Jane 
writes  letters. 

Must  the  object  of  a  Transitive  verb  always  be  expressed  ? 

No ;  if  the  object  is  obvious,  it  need  not  always  be  ex- 
pressed ;  as,  The  boy  reads^  i.  e.  he  reads  boohs  or  some- 
thing else. 

How  are  Transitive  verbs  distinguished  ? 

By  voice. 

What  is  naeant  by  Voice  ? 

Voice  has  been  defined  to  be  the  particular  mode  of  in- 
flecting or  conjugating  the  verb,  or  it  may  be  said  to  ex- 
press the  condition  of  its  subject  as  active  or  passive. 

Mow  many  Voices  have  verbs  ? 

Two,  viz  :  Active  and  Passive. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  Active  Voice  ? 

It  is  in  the  Active  voice,  when  the  nominative  performs 
the  action  ;  as,  i5rutus  slew  Caesar.  Here  Brutus  the  sub- 
ject, performs  the  action. 

When  is  a  verb  in  the  Passive  Voice? 

It  is  in  the  Passive  Voice  when  the  subject  receives  the 
action  ;  as,  Caesar  was  slain  by  Brutus. 

Rem. — In  this  example,  Caesar  is  the  subject  of  the  verb, 
tvas  slain ,  but  is  still  the  object  of  the  action  expressed 
by  the  verb. 

When  is  a  verb  Intransitive  ? 

It  is  Intransitive  when  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  ob- 
ject ;  as,  The  bird  flies. 

Do  Intransitive  verbs  have  voice  ? 

They  do  not ;  though  a  few  of  them  admit  of  the  form 
of  the  Passive  voice ;  as,  He  is  gone. 


38  York's  illustrative  and 

LESSON  XII. 

OF  VERBS   CONTINUED. 
When  is  a  verb  Regular  ? 

When  it  forms  its  Past  tense  and  Perfect  participle  by 
annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root  or  simplest  form  of  the  verb, 
it  is  Regular  ;  as,  Love,  loved,  loved.  Walk,  walked,  walked. 

Rem.  1. — It  will  readily  be  seen,  that,  if  the  root  of  the 
verb  ends  in  e,  d  only  is  annexed ;  but,  if  it  ends  in  any 
other  letter,  ed  is  annexed. 

Rem.  2. — Such  verbs  may  be  said  to  be  Regular ;  be- 
cause their  Past  tense  and  Perfect  participle,  are  formed 
according  to  rule. 

Rem.  3. — Some  verbs  appear  to  be  Regular  when  they 
are  not ;  such,  for  instance,  as  those  whose  root  ends  in 
some  other  letter  besides  e,  yet  having  their  parts  formed 
by  annexing  d  only ;  as,  Hear,  heard,  heard. 

When  are  verbs  Irregular  ? 

They  are  Irregular  when  the  Past  tense  and  Perfect 
participle  are  formed  by  varying  the  root,  or  when  they 
are  monotonous,  admitting  of  no  variation ;  as,  see,  saw, 
seen.     Set,  set,  set. 

Rem. — In  the  first  example,  the  root  of  the  verb  see  is 
varied,  i.  e,  the  other  parts  assume  a  form  different  from 
the  root ;  but,  in  the  last  example,  the  root  is  not  varied, 
the  parts  all  having  the  same  form. 

What  is  aa  Auxiliary  verb  ? 

Such  verbs  as  are  used  to  assist  other  verbs  in  forming 
the  modes  and  tenses,  are  called  Auxiliaries ;  as,  May, 
can,  must,  might,  could,  should,  &c. 

Wh&t  is  a  Defective  verb  ? 

Such  a  verb  as  can  only  be  used  in  some  of  the  modes 
and  tenses ;  as,  Ought,  can,  &c. 

Rem. — The  learner  should  bear  in  mind,  though  we  have 
mentioned  several  classes  of  verbs,   yet  all  verbs  whether 


•CONSTEUCTIVE   GKAMMAiR.  39 

Regular  'or  Irregular,  Auxiliary  or  Defective-,  are  either 
Transitive  or  Intransitive, 

What  belong  to  vorfes  ? 

Mode  and  Tense,  Num\)«r  and  Person, 


LESSON  XEIL 

OP   MODES, 


What  is  the  Mode  of  a  verb  / 

Mode  is  the  manner  of  representing  affirmatioru 

How  many  Modes  are  there  ? 

Five,  viz :  Iiadicative,  Subjunctive,  Potential,  Imperative, 
and  Infinitive. 

How  does  the  Indicative  mods  represent  nSnnation  ? 

Positively  iiud  without  limitati'on ;  as,  She  loves. 

How  does  the  Subjunctive  represent  affirmation  ? 

The  Subjunctive  mode  affirms  a  thing,  subject  to  some 
condition ;  as,  If  Eli^a  study ^  she  will  improve. 

How  does  th'e  Potential  represent  aQmation  ? 

The  Potential  mode  affirms  possibility,  liberty,  power, 
will,  obligation,  or  necessity  ;  as,  It  may  rain.  He  may 
go.    lid  can  go,  lie  would  yo.  lie  should  go,  lie^nustgo. 

For  what  is  the  Imperative  mode  used? 

It  is  used  for  commanding,  exhorting,  entreating,  or 
permitting ;  as,  Obey  my  precepts.     Go  in  peace. 

How  does  the  Infinitive  represent  affirmation  ? 

It  does  not  limit  it  to  any  particular  subject;  as,  Mar- 
tha went  to  meet  Jesus. 

From  what,  doeB  the  Mode  of  verbs  arise  7 

From  the  various  ways  in   which  affirmation  is  made 


40 


YOKK  S  ILLUSTRATED  AND 


concerning    the   subject,  as   illustrated  in  the    following- 
Diagram  ; 


Tlie  perpendicular  column  represents  the  subject  of  aflSr- 
mntion. 

Figure  1  represents  M'liat  is  affirmed  indicatively ;  as 
♦lie  figuYo  is  in  juxta-position  -with  the  subject,  it  shows 
that  whatever  is  indicatively  predicated,  belongs  absolutely 
to  the  subject ;  as,  The  bird  fties.     Job  was  patient. 

Figure  2  illustrates  the  S-ubjunctire  Mode,  or  -what  is 
predicated  with  some  limitation  ;  as  but  one  of  the  parallel 
lines  of  which  the  figure  is  con^posed^  is  in  juxta-position 
with  tiie  subject,  it  shows  that  what  is  affirmed  of  the  sub- 
ject, may  or  may  not  belong  to  it;  as,  If  Caisar  was  a 
tyrant,  he  deserved  death. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  Potential  Mode,  or  what  is 
affirmed  potentially  ;  as  the  figure  is  not  in  juxta-position 
with  the  subject,  it  shows  that  whatever  is  affirmed  poten- 
tialljs  does  not  belong  absolutely  to  the  subject,  but  that 
only  the  probability,  power,  liberty,  necessity,  &c.,  of  ac- 
tion or  quality,  is  predicated  ;  as.  The  bird  can  fly.  John 
may  he.  good. 

Figure  4  illustrates  the  Imperative  Mode,  or  what  is 
affirmed  imperative!}'.  In  this  Mode,  the  subject  is  com- 
manded to  act,  or  to  possess  a  quality  ;  it  is  clear  that  at 
^the  time  ^of  command,  the  action  or  quality  required,  does 
not  .exist  in  ihe   subject ;  but,  as  it  is  presumed  that  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  41 

speaker  has  power  to  enforce  obedience,  there  is  a  very  strong 
probability,  that  what  is  commanded  will  be  performed; 
the  figure,  therefore,  though  not  in  juxta-position  with  the 
subject,  is  made  to  approach  v<}ry  n<3ar  it;  as,  Ohey  my 
precepts. 

Figure  5  illustrates  the  Infinitive  Mode ;  ae  the  figure 
is  not  connected  with  the  subject,  but  w^th  the  part  of  the 
Diagram  which  represents  the  predicate,  it  shows  that  the 
Infinitive  never  makes  a  direct  affirmation  concerning  the 
■subject,  but  depends  upon  some  other  element  in  construc- 
tion ;  as.  He  ivoit  to  join  the  army. 

Questions. 

What  (iocs  the  perpendicular  column  of  the  Diagram  r«rpre8entr  What 
x-^o  the  other  parts  repc^-sentf  The  Predicate.  Wiiat  does  tig.  Ist  represent/ 
^,Vhat  fig.  2d,  ^g.  3d,  &c.  ? 


LESSON  XIV. 

OF   TENSE. 


What  is  Tense  ? 

Tense  meaiis  tim>e. 

How  many  TeHses  have  verbs? 

Six,  viz :  Present,  Past,  Perfect,  Pluperfect,  Future, 
,?.nd  Future-Perfect. 

What  does  the  •I'resent'teCiSe.deoot-e  ? 

Present  time;  as,  I  write,  I  am  writing  now. 

"What  does  the  Past  tenne  denete? 

Simply  ^a%t  trsie  ;  a^^  I  ivrote  yesterday. 

What  does  the  Perfect  denote  ? 

The  Perfect  tense  r<jpresents  an  event  which  is  past,  but 
the  period  of  time  in  which  it  occurred,  is  connected  with 
the  present ;  as,  I  have  ivritten  to-day. 

What  does  the  Pluperfect  represent  ? 

It  represents  time  which  is  not  simply  past,  but  j^n'c^r  to 


42 


YORK  S  ILLrSTRATI\T]  AITD 


some  other  time  which  is  also  past  >  as,  I  had  written  the- 
letter  before  the  mail  arrived. 

What  does  the  Future  tense  denote  ? 

Simi^l  J  future  time  ;  as,  I  shall  write  to-morrow. 

What  dees  the  Futnre-rerfect  tense  represent  ? 

It  represents  an  event  that  will  be  past  at  or  before 
some  other  future  time  specified ;  as,  I  shall  have  written 
by  the  appointed  time. 

You  may  now  oxamme  the  following  Piagram  which 
illustrates  the  six  Tenses  of  the  verb. 


■Past.V.::"-''.:^ 


Future 


Perfect. 


Futiire  h 


Timt  is  duration 
measured. 


Etentilyy: is  duration 

,    without  me^-sure 
■  ;    or-encf. 


The  space  included  by  the  vertical  lines  (1),  represents 
present  time. 

The  space  on  the  left  of  the  vertical  lines,  represents- 
past  time,  and  that  on  the  right  of  the  vertical  lines,  rep- 
resents future  time. 

Figure  2,  which  consists  of  but  one  line,  having  no  con- 
nection with  the  Present,  illustrates  the  Past  tense  of  tho 
verb. 

This  tense  is  properly  used  in  speaking  and  writing,, 
when  both  the  event  and  the  neriod  of  time  in  which  it 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  43 

occurred,  are  past ;  as,  Philosophers  made  great  discove- 
ries last  century. 

''  Figure  3,  which  consists  of  two  parallel  lines,  illus- 
trates the  Perfect  Tense.  This  tense  embraces  a  period 
of  time  which  is  not  only  connected  with  the  present,  but 
frequently  extends  into  the  future,  as  shown  by  the  first 
line  in  the  figure.  This  period,  as  a  whole,  consists  of 
three  component  parts ; — the  Event  part  marked  E,  is 
past,  the  Speaking  part,  marked  S,  which  is  present,  is  the 
time  occupied  in  uttering  the  sentence,  and  the  Post  speak- 
ing part,  marked  P,  which  is  future,  denotes  that  portion  of 
the  period  of  tima  subsequent  to  the  uttering  of  the  sen- 
tence. But  the  period  embraced  by  this  Tense  of  the  verb, 
sometimes  only  approaches  the  Present,  as  shown  by  the 
second  parallel  line ;  this  is  the  case  when  the  speaker 
refers  to  all  the  past  part  of  his  life  ;  as,  "  I  have  never  seen 
trees  so  tall." 

This  tense  is  correctly  used  in  speaking  and  writing, 
when  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred,  is 
connected  with  the  Present ;  as,  I  have  studied  hard  this 
week. 

Figure  4,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illus- 
trates the  Pluperfect  tense. 

When  two  past  events  are  connected  in  sense,  the  Plu- 
perfect is  correctly  employed  in  the  prior  past  of  the  two ; 
as.  The  thief  had  escaped  before  the  goods  were  missed. 
That  these  two  are  connected  in  sense,  is  obvious ;  for, 
when  X\iQ  former  is  uttered,  the  mind  is  so  much  under  the 
influence  of  the  expectation  of  the  hatter,  that  it  is  disap- 
pointed, if  it  is  withheld.  The  thief  had  escaped, — and 
what  else  ?  before  the  goods  were  missed. 

Figure  5,  which  consists  of  a  single  line,  illustrates  the 
Future  tense. 

This  shows  that  this  tense  of  the  Verb  denotes  future 
time  simply,  having  no  connection  with  any  other  event  or 


44  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

time.     This  tense  is  correctly  used  when  future  time  is 
simply  indicated. 

Figure  6,  which  consists  of  two  lines  connected,  illus- 
trates the  Future-Perfect  tense. 

When  two  future  events  are  connected  in  construction, 
this  tense  is  correctly  used  in  the  prior  future  of  these 
two  ;  as,  John  will  have  completed  his  task  by  the  appointed 
time. 

This  tense  is  called  Future-Perfect,  because  the  action 
or  event  will  be  completed  at  or  before  the  post  future 
event  with  which  it  is  connected. 

QUESTIONS. 

What  does  the  space  included  by  the  vertical  lines,  represent  ?  What  time 
does  the  space  on  the  left  of  the  \ortical  lines,  represent?  What  does  that 
on  the  right  repreeent?    What  does  figure  2d  represent  ? 

When  is  the  Past  tense  correctly  used  ? 
What  is  meant  by  the  event? 

The  actual  occurrence  of  the  action,  as  expressed  by 
the  word  made  in  the  example. 

What  by  period  of  time  ? 

By  period  of  time,  is  meant  that  portion  of  time  in  which 
the  event  occurs;  as,  ''^  last  century''  in  the  example  re- 
ferred to. 

Rem. — The  Teacher  may  ask  similar  questions  on  the 
rest  of  the  Diagram. 


LESSON  XV. 

OF  NUMBER  AND  PERSON  OF  VERBS. 
Are  Number  and  Person  dependent  or  independent  properties  of  the  verb  ? 

They  are  dependent. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  45 

Why? 

Because  the  verb  depends  upon  its  nominative  for  these 
properties. 

In  order,  then,  to  know  the  number  and  person  of  the  verb,  to  what  must 
yoa  look  ? 

To  its  nominative. 

In  what  tense,  do  the  variations  of  the  verb  principally  take  place? 

In  the  Present. 

What  are  these  terminations  called  ? 

They  are  called  personal  or  verbal. 

What   terminations   does    a   nominative    of  the   second  person,  singular, 
tolemn  style,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ? 

T,  st,  or  est ;  as,  Thou  arf,  thou  loves^,  thou  Yinlkest, 

Does  the  nominative  you  of  the  second  person,  singular,  familiar  style, 
reqaire  the  verb  to  assume  the  same  terminations? 

It  does  not ;  for  the  verb  generally  assumes  the  root  or 
plural  form  ;  as,  John,  where  are  youl 

Does  the  verb  ever  assume  the  singular  form  in  such  instances  ? 

Yes  ;  some  good  writers  use  a  verb  of  the  singular  form, 
in  the  Past  tense  with  such  a  nominative;  as,  ''Witness, 
where  luas  you  standing  during  the  transaction." 

What  terminations  does  a  nominative  of  the  third  person,  singular,  famil- 
iar stylo,  require  the  verb  to  assume  ? 

S  OX  es)  as.  He  walks.     She  goes. 

What  terminations  does  the  same  nominative,  solemn  style,  require? 

Th  or  eth',  as,  "The  Lord  lovei5^  the  gates  of  Zion.'" 
"  He  walkei/i  through  dry  places." 

What  does  a  plural  nominative  of  any  person  require  ? 

It  requires  the  verb  to  assume  the  root  or  plural  form  ; 
as.  We  love\  you  love\  they  love. 

What  effect  does  a  nominative  of  the  first  person  singular  have? 

It  generally  requires  the  verb  to  assume  a  similar  form  ; 
as,  I  love. 

Rem.  1. — When  an  Auxiliary  verb  is  employed,  it  is 
always  varied  instead  of  the  principal  verb ;  as  Thou  canst 
do  It. 


46  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

Hem.  2. — A  nominative  of  the  second  person,  singular, 
solemn  style,  requires  a  verb  in  the  past  tense  to  vary  ; 
as,  Thou  walkedst. 

Rem,  3. — The  solemn  style  is  the  style  used  in  the  Bible, 
and  the  familiar  style  is  that  used  in  common  conversation. 


LESSON   XVI. 

OF   CONJUGATION. 
V/hat  is  meant  by  the  Conjugation  of  a  verb? 

It  is,  literally  speaking,  yoking  the  verb  with  its  nomi- 
native throughout  all  its  Modes,  Tenses,  and  Voices. 

CONJUGATION   OF   THE  VERB   TO  BE. 

lioot.     Be. 

Principal  Parts. 

Present,  Am  or  be;  Past,  Was;  Perf.  Participle,  Been. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

present  tense. 
Singular.  Plural. 

1st  Person,  I  am.  1st  Person,  We  are. 

on  r>  S  Thou  art,  or  „  .  P^rcnn       i  ^^  ^^®'  ^^ 

2d  Person,     |  you  are.  2d  Person,     -j  you  are. 

3d  Person,  He,  she,  or  it  is.  3d  Person,  They  arc. 

Past  Tense. 
ist  Person,  I  was.  1st  Person,  We  were. 


^.         ,,         n^hou  wast,  or  „.         a         J  Ye  were,  or 

I  You  were.  ]  You  were. 

3d        ''       lie  was.  3d        "      They  were. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  47 


Perfect  Tense. 


1  I  have  been.  1  We  have  been, 

Thou  hast  been,  or  „     j  Ye  have  been,  or 


You  have  been.  ^You  have  been. 

3  lie  has  or  hath  been.  3  They  have  been. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1  I  had  been,  1  We  had  been, 

^     rrhon  hadst  been,  or  ^^     jYe  had  been,  or 
"     )  You  had  been.  /  You  had  been. 

3  He  had  been.  3.  They  had  been. 

Future  Tense. 

1  I  shall  or  M-ill  be,  1  We  shall  or  will  be, 

^     <iThon  shall  or  wilt  be,  or  ^     ^  Ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 

"     "j  You  shall  or  will  be.  ''  )  You  shall  or  will  be, 

3  lie  shall  or  will  be.  3  They  shall  or  will  be. 

Fl'tuke-Perfect  Tense. 

1  I  shall  or  will  have  been,  1   We  shall  or  will  have  been, 

i  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  been,     ^     <  Ye  shall  or  will  have  been,  or 

2  s  or  You   shall    or    will  have     ^     "j  You  shall  or  will  have  been, 
(been 

3  IJc  shall  or  will  have  been.  3  They  shall  or  will  have  been. 


SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 
Present  Tensf. 
Indicative  or  Common  Form. ' 
SiNuuLAR,  Plural. 


1   If  I  am.  1  If  we  are. 

\  If  thou  art,  or  o     5  ^^  jc  are,  or 

\  If  you  arc.  "^     Hf  you  are. 

3  If  lie  is.  3  If  they  are. 


2 


Conjunctive  Form  or  Elliptical  Future. 

1  If  I  be.  I  If  we  be. 

2  )  If  thou  be,  or  o     S  If  ye  be,  or 
\  If  you  be.  ^     )  If  you  be. 

3  If  he' be.  3  If  they  be. 


48 


YORK  S  tLLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Past  Tense. 
Common  Form. 


If  I  was- 
S  If  thou  wast,  or 
I  If  you  were. 

If  he  was. 


1  If  we  were. 
Q  (   If  ye  were,  or 
'^  )    If  you  were. 
3  If  they  were. 


IIyj>oih€tical  Form. 


1   Were  I,  or  if  I  were. 
n     S  Wert  thou,  or  if  thou  wert, 
\  or  Were  you,  or  if  3^0 u  were. 
3  Were  he,  or  if  he  were. 


1  Were  we,  or  if  we  were. 
f,     j  Were  ye,  or  if  ye  were,  or 
/  Were  you,   or  if  you  were. 
o  Were  they,  or  if  the}'  were. 


Perfect  Tense. 


If  I  have  been. 

S  If  thou  hast  been,  or 
)  If  you  have  been. 
If  he  hath  or  has  been. 


1  If  we  have  been. 


\  If  ye  have  been,  or 
( If  you  have  been. 
If  they  have  been, 


Pluperfect  Tense. 


If  I  had  been. 
S  If  thou  hadst  been,  or 
ilf  you  had  been. 

If  he  hc'.d  been. 


If  we  had  been, 
jif  ye  had  been,  or 
]  If  you  had  been. 

If  they  had  been. 


Future  Tense. 


1  If  I  shall  or  will  be. 

o     ^If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  be,  or 

3 


If  you  shall  or  will  be. 
If  he  shall  or  will  be. 


1  If  we  shall  or  will  be. 

f)  \  If  ye  shall  or  will  be,  or 

*^  )  If  you  shall  or  will  be. 

3  If  they  shall  or  will  be. 


Future-Perfect  Tense. 


If  I  shall  or  will  have  been. 

(^  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have 

■\     been,  or 

( If  you  shall  or  will  have  been. 
If  he  shall  or  will  have  been. 


If  we  shall  or  will  have  been. 

!If  ye  shall  or  will  have  been, 
or 
If  you  shall  or  will  have  been 
If  they  shall  or  will  have  been. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  49 

POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Indefinite  Tense. — [Present.] 

Singular.  Pluual. 

1  I  may,  can,  or  must  bo.  1  TVe  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

^Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must     f>     j  Ye  may,  can  or  must  be,  or 

2  ■}     be,  or  *"     |You  may,  can,  or  must  be. 
(You  may,  can,  or  must  be.     3  They  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

8  Pie  may,  can,  or  must  be. 

Indefinite  Tense. — [Past.] 

1  I  might,  could,  would,  or  should     1  We  might,    could,   would,  or 
be.  should  be. 


(  Thou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst, 
ty     I       or  shouldst  be,  or  o 

i  You  might,   could,   would,  or 

[      should  be. 

8  He    might,    could,     would,    or     8  They  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be.  should  be. 


'  l^e  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be,  or 
You  might,  could,  would,  or 
should  be. 


Perfect  Tense. 

1   I  may,  can,  or  must  have  been.     1   VYe  may,   can,   or  must  have 

been. 
'  Thou   mayst,  canst,  or  must  f  Ye  may,  can,  or  must  have 

Q    j      have  been,  or  p    j      been,  or 

You  may,  can,  or  must,  have  j  You  may,  can,  or  must  have 

been.  1      been. 

8  He  may,  can,  or  must  have  been.     3  They  may,  can,  or  must  have 

been. 

Pluperfect  Tense.* — [Past  Tense.] 

1   I  might,  could,  would,  or  should    1     We    might,  could,  would,  or 
have  been.  should  have  been. 

'Thoumightst,  couldst,  wouldst       f  Ye  might,    could,    would,   or 


or  shouldst  have  been,  or        „  J      should  have  been,  or 
You  might,   could,   would,  or       ]  You  might,  could,   would,  or 


should  have  been.  [      should  have  been. 

3  lie  miglit,  could,  would  or  should    3  They  might,   could,  would,  or 
have  been.  should  have  been. 


*  This  tense  expresses  nothing  more  than  simply  pa.^t  time;  con- 
sequently it  is  not  embraced  in  the  definition  given  of  the  Pluperfect 
tense.  As  things  ought  to  be  called  by  their  proper  names,  I  would 
suggest  the  propriety  of  calling  this  tense  Past. 


50  York's  illustrative  and 

IMPERATIVE  MODE. 

Present*  Tense. — [Future.] 

Singular.  Plural. 

\  Be,  or  be  ye  or  j'^ou,  or 


2d 


p    <  Be,  or  be  thou,  or    f,  ^  Be,  or  be  ye  or  yc 
rers.  -j  -p^  ^^^^^  ^^        ^  ^  j^^  ^^^  ^j,  ^,^^  ^^^ 


INFINITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense,  To  be.  Perfect  Tense,  To  have  been. 

Pari  iciples. 

Imperfect,  Being.  Perfect,  Been. 

Pluperfect,  Having  been. 


LESSON  XVII. 


The  Conjugation  of  the  Regular,  Transitive  Verb, 

To  Love — in  the  Active  Voice. 

Root,  Love. 

Principal  Parts,  Love,  loved,  loved. 

INDICATIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 

Singular, 

Isi  Person.     I  love. 

2d         *'  Thou  lovest,  or  you  love. 

3d         "  He  loveth  or  loves. 


*  This  tense  is  generally  called  Present,  though,  strictly  speaking, 
it  is  Future ;  since,  if  the  event  were  actually  occurring  at  the  time 
of  command,  it  would  supersede  the  necessity  of  it. 


constructive  grammar*  f)  i 

Past  Tense. 

1st  Person      I  loved. 

2d  *'  Thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

3d         "  He  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1st         "  I  have  loved. 

2d         "  Thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved. 

3d         '*  He  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1st         "  I  had  loved. 

2d         "  Thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved. 

3d         "  He  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1st         "  I  shall  or  will  love. 

2d         **  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  you  shall  or  will 

love. 
3d         "  He  shall  or  will  love. 

Future-Perfect. 

1st         "  I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2d         *'  Thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you 

shall  or  will  have  loved. 
3d         "  He  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. 
Common  or  Indicative  Form. 

Singular. 

If  I  love. 

If  thou  lovcst,  or  you  love. 

If  he  loveth  or  loves. 


1st 

a 

2d 

(( 

3d 

u 

52  york's  illustrative  and 

Past  Tense. 

1st  Person      If  I  loved. 

2(1  "         '  If  thou  lovedst  or  you  loved. 

3d  ''  If  be  loved. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1st         "  If  I  have  loved. 

2d^         "         [If  thou  hast  loved,  or  you  have  loved. 

3dj         '•  If  he  hath  or  has  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1st         '•  If  I  had  loved. 

2d  *'  If  thou  hadst  loved,  or  you  had  loved. 

3d  '•  If  he  had  loved. 

Future  Tense. 

1st         "  If  I  shall  or  will  love. 

2d  "  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  love,  or  if  you  will  love. 

3d  "  If  he  shall  or  will  love. 

Future-Perfect  Tense.'] 

1st         "  If  I  shall  or  will  have  loved. 

2d         "  If  thou  shalt  or  wilt  have  loved,  or  you  shall 

or  will  have  loved. 
3d  "  If  he  shall  or  will  have  loved. 


POTENTIAL  MODE. 

Indefinite  Tense.. — [Present.] 

Singular. 

I  may,  can,  or  must  love. 
Thou  mayst,  canst,  or  must  love,  or 
^  You  may,  can,  or  must  love. 
3       lie  may,  can,  or  must  love. 


constructive  grammar.  53 

Indefinite  Tense, — [Past.] 

1        I  might,  could,  would  or  should  love. 

^    j  Tiiou  mightst,  couldst,  woulist,  or  shou-dst  love,  or 

,(  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 
'I       lie  might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 

Perfect  Tense. 

1       1  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved, 

iy     f  Thou  raayst,  canst,  or  must  have  loved,  or 

(  You  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 
S       He  may,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

Pluperfect  Tense. 

1       I  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

^     f  Tliou  mightst,  couldst,  wouldst,  or  shouldst  have  loved. 

\  You  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved, 
o       He  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  loved. 

IMPERITIVE  MODE. 

Present  Tense. — [Future.]] 

2   /  Love  or  love  thou  or  you,  or 
\  Do  thou  or  you  love. 

INEINITIVE  MODE. 
Present  Teuse,  To  love.         Perfect  Tense,  To  have  loved. 

Participles. 

Imperfect,    Loving.  Perfect,  Loved. 

Pluperfect,     Having  loved. 

Hem.  1. — Since  tlic  verb  undergoes  no  variation  tu  agree 
with  a  nominative  in  the  plural,  the  plural  number  has 
been  omitted  in  the  above  conjugation. 

Rem.  2. — The  Passive  voice  is  formed  throughout  all 


54  York's  illustrative  and 

the  Modes  and  Tenses,  by  prefixing  the  variations  of  the 
verb  To  Be  to  the  Perfect  Participle  of  a  Transitive  verb  : 
afl,  I  love,  Active ;  I  am  loved,  Passive  Voice. 


LESSON  XVIII. 

Formation  of  the  Tenses. 

The  Root  of  the  verb,  as  found  in  the  Infinitive  Present, 
is  its  simplest  form. 

How  is  the  Past  Tense  of  Regular  verbs  in  the  Indicative  and  Subjunctive 
Modes,  formed  ? 

By  annexing  d  or  ed  to  the  root ;  as,  Love,  loved. 

How  is  the  Past  of  Irregular  verbs  formed  ? 

By  varying  the  form  of  the  root ;  as,  See,  saw. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Tense  formed  f 

By  prefixing  have  or  its  variations  to  the  Perfect  Parti- 
ciple ;  as,  Have  loved,  hadst  loved,  hath  or  has  loved. 

How  is  the  Pluperfect  Tense  formed  f 

By  prefixing  had  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as.  Had 
loved. 

How  is  the  Future  formed? 

By  prefixing  shall  or  ivill  to  the  root  of  the  verb ;  as, 
Shall  or  will  love.     Shall  or  will  see. 

How  is  the  Future-Perfect  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  shall  or  will  have  to  the  Perfect  Partici- 
ple ;  as,  Shall  or  will  have  loved.  Shall  or  will  have 
seen. 

How  is  the  so  called  Present  Potential  [Indefinite],  formed  f 

By  prefixing  may,  can,  or  must  to  the  root  of  the  verb  ; 
as,  may,  can,  or  must  love. 

How  is  the  Potentinl  Past  [Indefinite],  as  it  ia  called,  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  might,  could,  ivould,  or  should  to  the  root; 
as,  Might,  could,  would,  or  should  love. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


55 


Rem. — Both  of  these  tenses  should  be  called  Indefinite. 

How  ia  the  Potential  Perfect  formed  / 

By  prefixing  may,  can^  or  must  have  to  the  Perfect 
Participle ;  as,  May,  can,  or  must  have  loved. 

How  is  the  Potential  Pluperfect  [Past]  formed  .' 

By  prefixing  might,  could,  would,  or  should  have  to  the 
Perfect  Participle ;  as  Might,  could,  would,  or*should  have 
loved. 

How  is  the  Present  Infinitive  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  to  to  the  Root ;  as,  To  love. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Infinitive  formed.' 

By  prefixing  to  have  to  the  Perfect  Participle ;  as  To 
have  loved. 


LESSON  XIX. 


LIST  OF  IRREGULAR  VERBS. 


Present. 

Abide 

Am  or  Be 

Awake 

Bear,  (to  bring  forth,) 

Bear,  (to  carry,) 

Beat 

Begin 

Bend 

Bereave 

Beseech 

Bid 

Bind 

Bite 

Bleed 

Blow 


Past. 


Perfect  Participle. 


abode 

abode 

was 

been 

awoke,  R,* 

awaked 

bore 

born 

bore 

borne 

beat 

beaten,  beat 

began 

begun 

bent,  R, 

bent 

bereft,  R, 

bereft,  R, 

besought 

besought 

bid,  bade, 

bidden,  bid 

bound 

bound 

bit 

bitten,  bit 

bled 

bled 

blew 

blew 

*  Those  verbs  whose  Past  tense  and  Perfect  Participle  are  followed 
by  R,  have  also  a  regular  form ;  as,  Awahe  or  awaked. 


56 


York's  illustrative  ahd 


Present. 

Break 
Breed 
Bring 
Build 

Burn 

Burst 

Buj 

Cast 

Catch 

Chide 

Choose 

Cleave,  (to  adhere,) 

Cleave,  (to  split,) 

Cling 

Clothe 

Come 

Cost 

Creep 

Crow 

Cut 

Dare 

Deal 

Dig 

Do^ 

Draw 

Dream 

Drink 

Drive 

Dwell 

Eat 

Fall 

Feed 

Feel 

Fight 

Find 

Flee 

Fling 

Forsake 

Freeze 

Freight 

Get 

Gild 

Gird 

Give 

Go 

Grave 

Grind 

Grow 


Past 

broke  n 
bred 
brought 
built,  R, 
burnt,  R, 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R, 

chid 

chose 

cleaved 

clove,  cleft, 

clung 

clad,  R, 

came 

cost 

crept 

crew,  R, 

cut 

durst 

dealt,  R, 

dug,  R, 

did 

drew 

dreamt,  R, 

drank 

drove 

dwelt 

ate,  eat, 

fell 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung 

flew 

forsook 

froze 

freighted 

got 

gilt,  R, 

girt,  R, 

gave 

went 

graved 

ground 

grew  J 


PERrECT  PARTICrPLK. 

broken 

bred 

brought 

built 

burnt,  R, 

burst 

bought 

cast 

caught,  R, 

chidden,  chid, 

chosen 

cleaved 

cloven 

clung 

clad,  R, 

come 

cost 

crept 

crowed 

cut 

dared 

dealt,  R, 

dug,  R, 

done 

drawn 

dreamt,  R, 

drunk,  dranky 

driven 

dwelt 

eaten 

fallen 

fed 

felt 

fought 

found 

fled 

flung  , 

flown 

forsaken 

frozen 

fraught,  R, 

got,  gotten 
gilt,  R, 
girt,  R, 
given 
gone 

graven,  R, 
ground 
grown 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR. 


Present. 

Hang 

Have 

Hear 

Heave 

Hew 

Hide 

Hit 

Hold 

Hurt 

Keep 

Kneel 

Knit 

Know 

Lade 

Lay 

Lead 

Leave 

Lend 

Let 

Lie,  (to  recline,") 

Light 

Load 

Lose 

Make 

Mean 

Meet 

Mow 

Pay 

Pen,  (to  enclose,) 

Put  '^ 

Quit 

Read 

Rend 

Rid 

Ride 

Ring 

Rise 

Rive 

Run 

Saw 

Say 

See 

Seek 

Seeche 

Sell 

Send 

Set 

Sit 

Shake 

Shape 


57 


Past. 

hung 

had 

heard 

hove,  R, 

hewed 

hid 

hit 

held 

hurt 

kept 

knelt,  R, 

knit,  R, 

knew 

laded 

laid 

led 

left 

lent 

let 

lay 

Ht,  R, 

loaded 

lost 

made 

meant 

met 

mowed 

paid 

pent,  R, 

put 

quit,   R, 

read 

rent 

rid 

rode 

rang,  rung, 

rose 

rived 

ran 

sawed 

said 

saw 

sought 

sod,  R, 

sold 

sent 

set 

sat 

shook 

shaped 


Perfet  Participle 

huncr 
had 
heard 
hoven,  R, 
hewn 

hidden,  hid, 
hit  ^ 

held 
hurt 
kept 

knelt,  R, 
knit,  R, 
known 
laden 
laid 
led 
left 
lent 
let 
lain 
lit,  R, 
laden,  R, 
lost 
made 
meant 
met 
mown 
paid 
pent,  R, 
put 

quit,  R, 
read 
rent 
rid 

ridden 
rung 
risen 
riven 
run 

sawn,  R, 
said 
seen 
soug'it 
sodden 
sold 
sent 
set 
sat 

shaken 
shapen,  R, 


58 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


Present. 


Past. 


Perfect  Participle, 


Shave 

shaved 

shaven 

Shear 

sheared 

shorn 

Shed 

shed 

shed 

Shine 

shone 

shone 

Shoe 

shod 

shod 

Shoot 

shot 

shot 

Show 

showed 

shown 

Shred 

shred 

shred 

Shrink 

shrank,  shrunk, 

shrunk 

Shut 

shut 

shut 

Sing 

sang,  sung, 

sung 

Sink 

sank,  sunk, 

sunk 

Slay 

slew. 

slain 

Sleep 

slept 

slept 

Slide 

slid 

slidden,  slid 

Sling 

slung 

slung 

Slink 

slunk 

slunk 

Slit 

slit 

slit,  R, 

Smite 

smote 

smitten 

Sow,  (to  scatter,) 

sowed 

sown,  R, 

Speak 

spoke 

spoken 

Speed 

sped 

sped 

Spell 

spelt,  R, 

spelt,  R, 

Spend 

spent 

spent 

Spill 

spilt,  R, 

spilt,  R, 

Spin 

spun 

spun 

Spit 

spit 

spit 

Spread 

spread. 

spread 

Spring 

sprang  sprung, 

sprung 

Stand 

stood 

stood 

Steal 

stole 

stolen 

Stick 

stuck 

stuck 

String 

strung 

strung 

Stride 

strotie,  Btrid, 

stridden 

Strike 

struck 

struck,  strickeOy 

Strive 

strove 

striven 

Strow,  or  strew, 

strowed  or  strewed 

strown,  or  strewn 

Swear 

swore 

sworn 

Sweat 

sweat 

sweat 

Sweep 

swept 

swept 

Swell 

swelled 

swollen,  R, 

Swim 

swam,  swum, 

swum 

Swing 

swung 

swung 

Take 

took 

taken 

Teach 

taught 

taught 

Tell 

told 

told 

Think 

thought 

thought 

Thrive 

throve 

thriven 

Thrust 

thrust 

thrust 

Throw 

threw 

thrown 

CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR, 


o9 


Present. 

Tread 

Wax 

Wear 

Weave 

Weep 

Wet 

Whet 

Win 

Wind 

Work 

Wring 

Write 


Past. 


Perfect  Participlf. 


trod 
waxed 

trodden,  trod, 
waxen,  R, 

wore 

worn 

wove 

woven 

wept 
wet,  R, 
whet,  R, 

wept 
wet,  R, 
whet,  R, 

won 
wound 
wrou<^ht,  R, 

won 
wound 
wrought,  R, 

wrung 
wrote 

wrung 
written. 

MODEL. 

"Jesus  wont  unto  tho  Mount  of  OUves." 

Went  is  an  Irregular  Intransitive  verb,  of  the  Indica- 
tive Mode,  Past  tense,  and  of  the  thiid  person,  singular 
number,  agreeing  with  its  nominative  Jesus,  according  to 
rule  6. 

Wbv  is  t-t'):*  a  verb/ 

Because  it  asserts  or  affirms. 

Why  Irregular? 

Because  it  forms  its  Past  Tense  and  Perfect  Participle, 
hj  varying  the  form  of  the  root. 

Why  Intriinsiitive? 

Because  it  has  no  power  to  affect  an  object. 

Whv  in  the  Indicative  Modt.? 

Because  it  affirms  positively  and  without  limitation* 

Wh.v  in  the  Past  Tense  / 

B(>cause  the  period  of  time  in  which  the  event  occurred, 
is  wholly  past, 

Wliy  <»i  the  third  person,  singular.' 

Because  its  nominative  Jesus  is  of  the  third  person, 
singiilar. 


60  YORK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


EXERCISES. 

The  sun  shines  upon  the  floor.  Joseph  went  w-ith  his 
brother.  Thomas  has  returned.  James  had  lost  his  book 
before  he  left  school.  Those  ladies  will  return  soon.  He 
will  have  completed  his  tas^k  by  the  time  appointed.  If 
[lenry  study,  he  will  improve.  If  thou  hadst  been  here, 
he  would  not  have  gone.  He  may  go,  if  he  will  return 
to-morrow.  I  may  have  said  it.  The  work  might  have 
been  done  better.  He  would  not  go.  He  went  into  the 
field,  to  seek  treasure.  He  ought  to  have  gone  sooner. — 
Obey  my  precepts,  if  you  wish  to  learn.  Take  heed  to 
your  ways.  Walk  not  in  the  way  of  bad  men.  Keep  your 
heart  with  all  diligence.  Tarry  not  at  the  wine.  •  He  has 
no  time  to  lose.  Have  they  returned  ?  Can  Mary  attend 
the  wedding  ?     It  is  I ;  be  not  afraid. 


LESSON  XX. 

OF    PARTICIPLE. 


What  Is  a  Participle  f 

A  participle  is  a  word  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes^ 
of  the  nature  of  a  verb,  and  also,  of  an  adjective,  but  de- 
pends upon  a  noun  or  pronoun  in  construction. 

How  do  Participles  partake  of  the  iiature  of  the  verb? 

They,  like  verbs,  express  actio-n  ;  as,  I  see  a  man  walh- 
ing. 

In  what  respect,  do  tbey  partake  of  the  nature  of  adjectives  ? 

In  limiting  the  noun  or  pronoun  on  which  they  depend. 
For  instance,  in  tlie  sentence,  "I  see  a  man  walking," 
waJJcivg  not  only  expi  esses  the  action  of  man,  but,  also, 
limits  man  like  an  adjective. 

How  many  Participles  have  verbs? 

Three,  viz  :  Imperfect,  Perfect,  and  Pluperfect. 


CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  61 

How  is  the  Imperfect  Participle  formed  ? 

By  annexing  ing  to  the  Root  of  the  verb ;  as,  Love, 
lovi7}g. 

Rem. — When  the  verb  ends  in  e,  on  receiving  the  suffix 
ing^  the  e  is  dropped.  (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive 
Grammar,  Rules  for  Spelling.) 

H'hy  is  the  Participle  ending  in  ing,  called  Imperfect? 

Because  the  action  -which  it  expresses,  is  unfinished. 

How  is  the  Perfect  Participle  formed? 

When  derived  from  a  regular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  an- 
nexing d  or  ed  to  the  Root ;  as,  Love,  loved ;  but,  when 
derived  from  an  Irregular  verb,  it  is  formed  by  varying 
the  form  of  the  Root ;  as.  See,  seen. 

Why  is  this  Participle  called  Perfect? 

Because  it  denotes  a  finished  state  of  the  action  or  ver- 
bal denotement. 

How  is  the  Pluperfect  Participle  formed  ? 

By  prefixing  having  to  the  Perfect  Participle  ;  as,  seen, 
having  seen. 

Why  is  it  called  Pluperfect. 

Because  it  denotes  more  than  the  Perfect. 

Rem. — The  Pluperfect  Participle  not  only  denotes 
finished  state  of  the  action  or  verbal  denotemcn;;,  but, 
also,  as  completed  before  the  time  indicated  by  the  princi- 
pal verb  of  the  sentence,  \vith  which  it  is  associated  ;  as. 
He  having  2oritten  a  letter,  mailed  it.  (For  a  full  display 
of  the  Participle,  see  llk'strativo  and  Constructive  Gram- 
mar.) 

MODEL. 

The  old  fox  heard  the  hunter's  horn  sounding. 

Sounding  is  an  Imperfect  Participle,  derived  from  the 
verb  to  sound,  and  refers  to  horn,  according  to  Rule  18. 

Wby  is  sounding  a  Participle? 

Because  it  is  derived  from  a  verb,  and  partakes  of  t\ 
nature  of  a  verb  and  an  adjective. 


62  York's  rLLUSTRATivE  and 

Why  is  it  Imperfect  ? 

Because  the  action  which  it  expresses,  is  unfinished,  still 
going  on. 

Why  is  it  said  to  refer  to  horn  7 

Because  it  depends  upon  it  in  construction. 

EXERCISES. 

I  see  an  eagle  flying.  The  hnnters  heard  the  young 
dog  barking.  James  has  compl'^ted  the  task  given  him. 
The  young  ladies,  having  written  the  letter,  dispatched  it. 
The  stranger  saw  the  desert  thistle  bending  there  its  lonely 
head.  The  General  having  completed  the  conquest,  re- 
turned in  triumph.  Jesus  seeing  the  multitude,  went  up 
into  a  mountain.  The  house,  erected  on  yonder  rising 
ground,  drew  me  from  the  road.  I  see  a  man  beating  his 
horse. 


LESSON  XXI. 

PRONOUNS    OR   SUBSTITUTES. 
What  i?  a  l^n-n  ud  ? 

A  Prononn  is  a  word  used  instead  of  a  noun,  and  gene- 
rally to  avoid  its  repetition  ;  as,  Henry  is  a  good  student, 
and  /'ic  learns  very  fast. 

Re  . — You  perceiv(^  ih  it  he,  in  this  sentence,  stands  for 
the  noun  or  name  Ih'nrtj,  and,  also,  avoids  its  repetition, 
thereby  making  langtia;'.   more  concise  and  elegant. 

How  insy  Pronouns  be  divjiioi? 

Into  two  classes,  viz:  Personal  and  Relative,  or  Con- 
nective. 

How  are  Poraonal  pr -nou  ^     <'i;<tintjuished  from  tho  Relative? 

Personal  pronouns  have  a  form  to  show  their  own  per- 
9on ;  jlelutivcs  have  not. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  63 

How  many  Personal  pronouns  aro  there  ? 

There  are  five,  viz :  J,  thou  or  you^  he  she,  and  it,  and 
their  plurals,    We,  ye  or  you,  and  they. 

What  belong  to  Pronouns? 

As  Pronouns  stand  for  nouns,  they  must  have  the  same 
propertieSj^viz :  Gender,  Person,  Number,  and  Case. 

Which  of  the  Pronouns  are  varied  to  express  Gender? 

Those  of  the  third  person,  singular,  viz:  He,  mascu- 
line ;  She,  feminine,  and  It,  neuter. 

Why  aro  not  Pronouns  of  the  first  and  second  persons,  varied  to  express 
Gonder  ? 

Because  the  speaker  and  person  addressed,  are  supposed 
to  be  present ;  consequently  their  Oender  known  ;  but,  as 
the  tliird  person  may  be  absent  or  unknown  to  the  person 
addressed,  it  is  varied  to  express  gender. 

How  many  Persons  have  pronouns? 

Three;  first,  second,  and  third;  liiwdiwe  are  first  per- 
son, thou  or  you  and  ye  or  you  are  second,  and  he,  she,  it, 
and  they,  third. 

Wh;it  does  the  person  of  Pronouns  represent  or  denote? 

The  first  person  denotes  the  speaker,  the  second,  the 
person  or  thing  spoken  to  or  addressed,  and  the  third,  the 
persons  or  things  spoken  of  or  about. 


LESSON. 

OF  DKCLliN&ION.  ;. 

Do  Pronouns  have  a  form  to  show  tboir  case  ? 

Most  of  them  liave. 

W'  a*  i--  thii*  variMti  n  «»'   forv.  to  sho«  Cit,«e,  called? 

It  is  called  Declension. 

Wbnt  di'cs  Declension   meai:  ? 

It  means  to  bend  from,  i  c,  the  Possessive  and  Objec- 
tive caSL'S  generally  have /orm»  different  fr«»in  the  nomina- 
tive, as  illustrated  in  the  fuUowing  Diagram: 


64 


YORK  8  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


DECLENSION    OF  PRONOUNS. 


FIRST  PERSON. 


Possessive. 
MY  or  MINE- 


our- 


SECOND 


Nominative. 
Singular. 


—  1  — 
Phiral. 

—  we  — 


YOUR- 

your — 


PERSON,  Famili 

Sin  qui ar. 
YOU 


Plural. 


SECOND 
THY  or  THINE- 
your — 


you 


Objective. 
ME, 


us. 

AR  Style. 

YOU 


PERSON,  Solemn 

Singular. 
THOU 


Plural. 
— ye — 


HIS- 


THIRD  PERSON — Masc 
Singular. 
HE 


Style. 


-you. 


uline. 


-THEE, 
-HIM, 


Their - 


THIRD 


HER 
Their 

ITS- 


THIRD 


Plural. 
Thcy- 


PERSON — Femi 

Singular, 
SHE 


Plural. 
They- 


NINE. 


Their - 


PERSON Neu 

Singular. 
liT 


Plural. 

-They- 


-Them. 

-HER, 

-Them. 


ter. 


■IT, 

■Them. 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  65 

By  examining  the  Diagram,  it  will  be  perceived  tbat  the 
Nominative  is  written  in  the  middle  c  )lumn,  the  Posses- 
sive on  the  left,  and  the  Objective  on  thj  right.  The  Pos- 
sessive and  Objective  cases  are  written  .it  tlie  ends  of  lines, 
forming  right  angles  with  the  middle  co'umn,  showing  that 
the  onost  of  them  have  ^form^  and  all  of  them  a  meaning 
difterent  from  the  Nominative. 

In  declining,  as  exhibited  in  the  Diagram,  the  pupils 
will  take  it  up  in  the  following  order :  Nominative  I ;  Pas- 
sive mj  or  mine;  Objective  me,  &;c. 

MODEL. 

"Henry  is  a  good  student,  and  he  learns  very  fast." 

He  is  a  Personal  Pronoun,  Mascul  ne  Gender,  third 
person,  singular,  agreeing  with  its  antecedent  Ilenry^ 
according  to  rule  12^  (repeat) ;  and  in  the  nominative  case 
to.  the  vprb  learns  according  to  Rule  1.     (Repeat  Rule.) 

Why  is  he  a  Pronoun  ? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Why  a  Personal  prenoun? 

Because  it  has  a  form  to  show  its  person. 

Why  of  the  Masculine  gender,  third  person,  singular? 

Because  its  antecedent  Henry  is. 

Why  in  the  Nominative  case  ? 

Because  it  is  the  subject  of  the  verb  in  its  own  member. 

EXERCISES. 

Mary  walked  with  her  sister.  I  saw  a  man  walking 
with  his  brother.  My  friends  visit  me  very  often.  Charles 
has  lost  his  knife.  Thou  hast  seen  my  friend.  Blot  out 
all  mine  iniquities.  AVc  leave  your  forests  of  beasts.  You 
are  happy ;  because  you  are  good.  I  will  fear  no  evil ; 
for  thou  art  ^ith  me. 


66  York's  illustrated  and 

LESSON  XXIII. 

OF   RELATIVE    OR   CONNECTIVE    PRONOUNS. 
What  are  Relative  Pronouns  1 

They  relate  to  some  word  or  phrase  going  before,  called 
the  antecedent ;  as,  The  boj  who  studies,  will  improve. 

Do  not  many  of  the  Personal  pronouns,  also,  relate  to  antecedents  ? 

They  do. 

Then,  in  what  re?pect,  do  Relative  pronouns  differ  from  Personal  f 

They  have  no  form  to  show  their  person,  and  they  con- 
nect clauses  like  connective  adverbs ;  and  this  is  the  rea- 
son they  are  sometimes  called   Connective  pronouns. 

What  .vords  are  used  as  Relatives? 

Who^  which,  and  that. 

To  what  is  loho  appliec  "i 

Who  is  applied  to  persons  and  rational  beings ;  as,  The 
bop  who  studies,  will  improve. 

To  what  is  which  applied? 

Which  is  now  applied  to  brutes  and  things  ;  as,  The  bird 
which  sung  so  sweetly,  has  flown. 

To  what  is  that  applied  f 

That  is  applied  to  any  thing  whether  rational  or  irra- 
tional, animate  or  inanimate  ;  as,  They  that  sow  in  tears, 
shall  reap  in  joy.     The  tilings  that  I  hate,  ye  do. 

Which  of  the  Relatives  are  decliaable  f 

Who  and  what,  are  sometimes  called  its  compounds, 
whoever,  tvhosoever,  &c. ;  as,  Nominative  Who,  Possessive 
Whose,  Objective  Whom, 

Are  which  and  that  declinable  ? 

They  are  not,  except  whose  is  sometimes  used  as  the 
possessive  case  of  which  instead  of  the  phrase  "  of  which  ;" 
as,  "The/ri^zY  of  that  forbidden  tree,  whose  mortal  taste 
brought  death,  &c,"  i.  e.,  the  mortal  taste  of  which  brought 
death. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  67 


LESSON  XXIV. 

OF   WHOEVER,    WHICHEVER,    WHAT. 
What  aro  such  words  as  whoever,  whichever,  and  ichat  generally  called  T 

Thej  are  generally  called  Compound  Relative  Pro- 
nouns. 

Id  this  an  appropriate  name  ? 

We  think  not ;  since  whoever  and  whosoever  refer,  liko 
other  Relatives,  to  some  antecedent  expressed  or  under- 
stood, but  generally  understood,  since  their  antecedents 
are  very  indefinite ;  as,  "  whosoever  will  be  a  friend  of  the 
world,  is  an  enemy  of  God,"  ^.  e.,  He  is  an  enemy  of  God, 
whosoever  will  be  a  friend  of  the  world.  Aad,  as  to  what, 
whatever,  and  whichever,  they  are  specifying  adjectives,  or 
substitutes,  belonging  to  some  noun  expressed  or  under- 
stood ;  as.  I  like  what  you  dislike,  ^.  e.,  I  like  what  thing 
you  dislike.  Whatever  is,  is  right,  i.  e,  [  Whatever  thing 
{which  is),  is  right.]  Eliza  may  take  whichever '^diiiQm 
pleases  her  best,  i.  e.,  [Eliza  may  take  whichever  pattern] 
(which  pleases  her  best),  which  being  understood. 

What  are  those  pronouns,  used  in  asking  questions,  called? 

They  are  generally  called  Interrogative  pronouns ;  they 
are  tvho,  what,  and  which. 

Rem. — Of  these,  who  only  is  properly  an  Interrogative 
pronoun  ;  since  ivhich  and  tuhat  belong  to  some  noun,  ex- 
pressed or  understood ;  as,  which  way  shall  I  fly  ?  What 
is  that  ?  ^.  e.,  what  person  or  thing  is  that  ?  What  book 
nave  you  ? 

Rem.  1 — Since  Relative  pronouns  have  no  form  to  show 
their  gender,  person,  and  number,  you  must  look  to  their 
antecedents,  in  order  to  know  these  properties. 

Rem.  2 — Tnterrogatives  are  said  to  agree  in  case  with 
their  subsequent;  as.  Who  wrote  that?     John. 


MODEL  I. 

The  boy  ivho  studies  his  lessons,  will  improve. 


68  York's  illustrative  and 

Who  is  a  Relative  pronoun,  of  the  masculine  gender, 
third  person,  singular,  agreeing  ^ith  its  antecedent  6oy, 
accordini>'  to  Rule  12,  and  nominative  case  to  studies,  ac- 
cording to  Rule  1. 

Whj  U  who  a  Pronoun? 

Because  it  is  used  instead  of  a  noun. 

Whj  a  Relative  ? 

Because  it  not  only  relates  to  an  ancedent,  but  it  has  no 
form  to  show  its  Gender,  Person,  or  Number. 

EXERCISES. 

The  young  lady  who  instructs  me,  labors  faithfully. — 
This  is  the  tree  which  produces  no  fruit.  They  that  sow 
in  tears,  shall  reap  in  joy.  The  boy  whom  I  teach,  learns 
well.     The  hat  which  Henry  lost,  has  been  found. 

MODEL  2. 

I  heard  what  was  said. 

What  is  a  specifying  adjective,  and  belongs  to  thing 
'^noeton"  [understood];  or  thus,  what  is  a  substitute  for 
what  thing,  and  in  the  objective  case,  governed  by  heard, 
according  to  Rule  19. 

Rem. —  Which,  in  this  and  all  similar  constructions,  is 
noeton  [understood].  The  sentence,  rendered  plenary, 
will  read  thus,  [I  heard  what  thing]  (tvhich  was  said.) 

EXERCIEES. 

Henry  took  what  he  wanted.  Mary  took  what  Eliza 
left.  I  heard  what  was  alleged  on  both  sides.  Whatever 
purifies  the  heart,  also  fortifies  it.  George  may  pursue 
whatever  science  suits  his  taste.  Whatever  is  true  in  sci- 
ence, is  useful  in  the  arts. 

MODEL  3. 

Who  art  thou  ?     The  minister. 


CONSTRUCTPirS   GRAMMAR.  69 

Wko  is  an  Interrogative  pronouny  agreemg  ia  gender, 
person,  and  namber  with  its  sabseqiieat  mmisterT,  aud  is  in 
tlie  nominative  case,  j(tredi.cated  of  the  subject  tkou^  accord- 
ing to  Rule  2. 

Rem. — If  the  subsequent  is  not  expressed,  or  the  an- 
swer to  the  question  not  given,  the  gender^  person,  and 
numlber  of  the  Interrogative  cannot  be  detefrmined. 

£X£]  RCISjb«S. 

Who  hid  John's  hat  ?  With  wh  o  m  ii4  joia  walk  ?  Who 
•wrote  that  ?  Which  ronte  did  he  take  T  What  book  have 
you  ?  A  Poem,  What  have  I  done  ?  What  tMok  ye  of 
Christ? 


I.ESSON  XXV, 

01?  THE  AETECLB. 
Wiiaf  is  an  Artlclo  ' 

An  Article  is  a  word  prefixed  to  nouns,  to  limit  tho  «x^ 
tent  of  their  signifiearion ;  as,  Thon  art  the  man. 

How  manj  Articles  aro  there  ? 

Two,  A  or  an  and  Tke* 

W&at  ia  Tke  called  ? 

It  is  called  the  Definite  article,  and  belonigs  to  noiins  of 
"botli  nrnmbers. 

A  or  An.  is  called  the  Indefinite  article,  and  belongs  to 
j!iouns  of  the  singular  aamber. 

Whom  shoaM  arc  be  Qsed  ? 

It  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a  mw€l 
soufidy  and,  also,  before  words  commencing  with  k^  when  the 
accent  is  on  the  second  syllable ;  as,  Am  acorn;  <m  hour; 
a^  kist&Hc  account. 

6 


70 «  York's  illustrativo!)  ajw) 

Rem.— Though  h  is  used  in  the  word  hour,  yet  ife  has. 
no  sound  ;  consequently  the  first  sound  is  a  vowel  sound* 

When  should  A  be  used  / 

It  should  be  used  before  all  words  commencing  with  a 
consonant  sound,  except  those  commencing  with  A,  accented 
on  the  second  syllable  ;  as,  A  man.     A  useful  book. 

Rem. — Though  the  word  useful  commences  with  the 
vowel  w,  yet  the  first  sound  heard,  is  that  of  the  conso- 
nant y. 

since  the  Article  belongs  to  nouns,  might  it  not  be  called  a  Specifying 
Adjective  ? 

It  might  be  so  called ;  and  those  who  prefer  parsing  it 
ZA  such,  are  sustained  by  good  authority. 

Do  Articles  belong  to  any  other  words  besides  nouns  ? 

In  some  peculiar  constructions,  the  definite  article  is 
said  to  belong  to  adverbs  and  adjectives  in  the  compara- 
tive and  superlative  degrees ;  as.   The  more  I  examine  it, 
the  better  I  like  it.     The  deeper  the  well,  the  colder,  the. 
water. 

REM.~rr5^Ae,  in  such  constructions,  is  not,  philosophi-. 
cally  speaking,  n.n,  article,  but  an  adverb  or  secondary  ad-, 
jective.     (3ee  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

MODEL. 

Solomon  w^s  awise  man. 

A  is  the  Indefinite  Article,  and  belongs  to  the  noun.. 
man,  according  to  Eule  13.. 

Why  is  a  an  Article  ? 

Because  it  limits  a  noun.. 

Why  is  it  the  Indefinite  Article  ? 

Because  it  limits  the  noun  with  respect  to  number,  or 
points  it  out  indefinitely. 

Why  is  a  used  in  this  example,  instead  of  an  f 

Because  it  is  placed  before  a  word  commencing  with  a, 
cfBsonaut  sound. 


CONSTR^OTIY^  GRAMMAR.  71 

ex;ercises,, 

Wasliington  was  a  man  of  i^rudence.  The  boy  learna 
welL  The  girl  has  a  useful  book.  That  book  is  a  Poem. 
He  IS  fond  of  an  English  author.  The  day  didea  sweetlv. 
She  IS  a  beautiful  lady.  ^  o 


LESSON  XXVI, 

OF  ADJECTIVES  OR  ATTRIBUTES, 
What  is  an  Adjective.' 

An  Adjective  is  a  word  added  to  a  noun  or  pronoun,  to 
^T^^h  ^k  ^^^^^*^'  ^^'  ^^^^^  ^^^  meaning;  as,  A  good  man. 

Into  how  many  classes,  then,  may  Adjectives  be  divided  ; 

They  m^y  be  divided  into  two^  viz  :  Qualifying  and  Spcc- 

What  are  Qualifying  Adjectives? 

Qualifying  Adjectives  express  the  quality  of  the  nouns 
%  Pronouns,  to  ^'hich  they  are  joined;  a,s,  Ymng  ladies. 
-LULL  irees. 

(ihe^r  quanty^?°"  ^^'^''''^'^'  ^'"^'^  t^«  °^eaning  of-  nouns  as  well  as  express 

They  do  ;  for  young  and  tull,,  in  the  above  examples, 
limit  ladies  and  trees  to  a  less  number  than  simply  ladies. 
and  trees;  since  all  ladies  are  not  yowig,  nor  are  all  trees 
ml     (See  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

Are  Adjectives  varied  ? 

^    They  are  varied  only  to  express  the  degrees  of  compar- 
ison.  ^ 

How  many  Bcgrees  of  Comparison  are  thcue  ? 

^  Adjectives  generally  have  three  Degrees  of  Comparison 
VIZ :  Positive,  Comparative,  and  Superlative.  ^ 

What  does  the  Pod'.tive  degree  expresj  ? 

It  expresses  an  indirect  comparison ;  as,  when  we  say 


72  York's  illustrative  and 

"that  man  is  tall,"  we  can  only  know  this  by  comparing 
him  with  the  general  height  of  men,  and  finding  that  he 
exceeds  it. 

What  does  tbe  Comparative  degree  express? 

It  expresses  a  direct  comparison  between  two  objects  or 
classes  of  objects ;  as,  James  is  taller  than  Henry.  Eve 
"^z^s  fairer  than  any  of  her  daughters. 

What  does  the  Superlative  express  ? 

It  expresses  a  dii:ect  comparison  of  several  objects ;  as, 
That  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  forest. 


LESSON  XXVII. 

FORMATION   OF  THE   DEGREES. 

How  are  the  Comparative  and  Superlative  degrees  of  Monosyllabic  ad- 
jectives generally  formed  ? 

They  are  formed  by  annexing  r  or  er  to  the  Positive,  to 
form  the  Comparative,  and  st  or  est  to  the  Positive,  to 
form  the  Superlative ;  as,  Positive,  wise :  Com.  wiser ; 
Sup.  wisest. 

Do  any  other  adjectives  admit  of  these  terminations  ? 

Yes,  such  dissyllabic  adjectives  as  end  in  ?/  or  le^  and, 
also,  such  as  have  the  accent  on  the  second  syllable,  admit 
similar  terminations;  as,  Holy,  holier,  holiest.  Able, 
abler,  ablest     Polite,  polii»r,  politest. 

How  are  other  adjectives  generally  compared  ? 

By  prefixing  more  and  most,  less  and  least  to  the  Posi- 
tive ;  as.  Beautiful,  more  beautiful,  most  beautiful.  Beau- 
tiful, less  beautiful,  and  least  beautiful. 

Do  adjectives  ever  admit  of  more  than  three  degrees  of  comparison  ? 

Such  adjectives  as  are  expressive  of  color  and  taste, 
generally  admit  of  four  degrees  ;  viz  :  Imperfect,  Positive, 
Comparative,  and  Superlative ;  as.  Imperfect,  Broiunish, 
brown,  browner,  brownest. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  73 

Rem. — The   Imperfect  degree   expresses  a  degree  of 
quality  inferior  to  the  Positive. 

The  Degrees  of  Comparison  are  illustrated  by  the  fol- 
lowing Diagram. 


Figure  1  illustrates  the  increase  of  the  PositlvCj  or  Com- 
parison «s(?^?^c^^7^^ ;  as,  Positive,  Wise,  Comparative,  mW  J 
Superlative,  wisest. 

Figure  2  illustrates  diminution  of  the  Positive,  or  Com- 
parison descending ;  as,  P.  Wise ;  C.  less  wise ;  S.  least 
tvise. 

Figure  3  illustrates  the  comparison  of  such  adjectives 
as  haxefoiir  degrees ;  as  Imperfect,  Greenish  ;  P.  green ; 
C.  greener ;  S.  greenest. 

It  will  ibe  perceived  by  inspecting  the  Diagram,  that  the 
Superlative  expresses  the  highest  or  lowest  degree  of 
quality ;  the  lines  S****  S;,  m  Figures  1  and  2,  make 
these  extreaies. 

Rem.  1 — Some  adjectives  are  Secondary  of  Helping,- 
and  qualify  other  adjectives;  as,  Pate  redlining.  A.  very 
^^  man. 

Rem,  2— Some  adjectives  are  irregular  in  forming  the 
degrees  of  comparison ;  as,  (xood,  better,  hest^ 

MODEL. 

A  prudent  man  foreseeth  the  evil. 

Prudent  is  a  Qualifying  Adjective,  in  the  Positive  de^ 


74  YORK'S  ILLtrSTRATIVE  AND 

gree,  and  belongs  to  man,  according  to  Rule  15.  Com^ 
pared,  Positive  prudent,  Com.  t-7iore  prudent,  Stip.  mosl 
prudent. 

Why  is  prudtnt  an  Adjective  ? 

Because  it  is  added  to  a  noun. 

"Why  Qualifying? 

BecaUsTe  it  expresses  the  quality  of  tlie  noun  man  t^ 
'whicli  it  is  atttiched. 

Why  in  the  Positive  degree? 

Because  it  ^Jipl-'essfes  an  indirect  comparisoi^. 
ISXERCISES. 

[You  may  now  parse  nnd   compare  all  the  adjectives  in  the  following  sen*- 
tencpp,  as  exhibited  in  the  above  Model.^ 

Washington  was  a  prudent  maYi.  A  good  man  rs  a  great 
man.  Solomon  was  the  wiset  nian.  <^ld  age  should  be 
respected.  Martha  is  more  beautiful  than  her  sister.  Pe- 
ter is  taller  than  James.  He  bought  a  piece  of  datk  brown 
cloth.  A  very  industrious  man  ac*quires  property.  A 
Very  goo'd  pen  whites  well. 


Lebson  xxvitt. 

SPECIFYING   OR   LIMITING  ADJECTIVES. 
Hctv  do  Specifying  Adjectives  point  out  nouns  ? 

They  point  out  nouns  by  some  distinct  specificatio'riy  but 
"do  not  express  quality ;  as-,  Every  man.     Some  women.   / 

Do  Specifying  Adjectives  ever  belong  to  nouns  ? 

They  do,  thoiiigh  not  frequently;  as,  "A  good  ^knd^r^ 
standing  have  a-S  tk'ey  that  ^ar  the  Lord." 

Are  Sp'ecifyifeg  Adjeetives  eVer  Used  as  Substitutes  ? 

They  are  frequently  so  used ;  as,  He  came  unto  his  owfi^ 
but  his  oi¥n  received  him  not,  z.  e.  he  came  unto  his  own 
nation^  &c. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  75 

'Into  how  many  classes  may  Specifying  Adjectives  be  divided; 

Into  seven ;  viz : 

1st.  Distributive ;  as,  Each,  every,  either,  neither, 
2d.  Demonstrative  ;  as,  This,  that,  these,  those,  yonder. 
6a,  Indefinite  ;  as,  All,  such,  some. 
4th.  Interrogative ;  ^,    What,  ivhich, 
5th.  Numeral;  as,  One,  ttvo,  tioenty,  &c. 
6th.  Ordinal ;  fes,  First,  second,  third,  &e. 
7th.  Circumstantial ;  as.  An  Arabian  horse.     A  desert 
thistle,  &c.     (Sefe  Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar.) 

MODEL. 

^^  Every  man  helps  a  little." 

'iJvery  is  a  Specifying  Adjective,  and  belongs  to  man, 
according  to  Rule  15. 

Why  Is  every  an  -Adjective  ? 

Because  it  is  added  to  a  noun. 

Why  Specifying  6r  limiting  ? 

Because  it  limits  the  meaning  of  the  noun  without  ^ex- 
pressing quality. 

EXERCISES. 

Scpae  meii  are  not  wise.  All  men  are  mortal.  Each 
individual  fills  a  space  in  creation.  Three  ladies  ^Walked 
into  the  garden.  Adam  was  the  first  man.  Those  young 
ladies  are  handsome.  This  man  is  unhappy.  That  day 
was  hot.  All  great  men  are  not  wi«e.  Some  men  labor, 
others  do  not.  All  we,  like  sheep,  have  gone  a-stray.  He 
ha-s  an  Arabian  horse.  Demosthenes  was  an  Athenian 
'Orator.    Jefferson  was  an  American  citizen. 


-B—Trtrrr  tn*!  t^  ^  ■  i» 


ILESSON  XXIX. 

ADVERBS  OR   MODIFIERS. 
What  Is  an  Adverb,  or  Modifier  ? 

An  adverb  is  a  word  used  to  modify  the  meaning  of 


T6 


TO:&X^S  ILIiWSTSATITS  AN2> 


^15^  pea  T^rit^  iiX!r:E:osELT  w^L 

Ejm.- — ^It  -i^mM.  be  fe©tl©r^  perlia,ps;j,  t©  ©al]  tl^ose  Ad- 
TiT^  irM^li  3aac.di%  Adj.£>€;iaT€«,  &^^mdoir^  or  Mefym^  Ad- 
jm^w^^^  sme©  tlj^j  liiaits  iioisBS  ©F^pi'DB-dTaus  m'Mxi'etl'f 
ths-im^  tli^  ifie&2a-  i>f  tk^  Adje<&fei¥fes  wM©li  t,lic«j  limit 

Ixiit)  3:1^19  i£ksa:ij  'flla£s;£s:^  3!&^j  Aii'Vifisr^  last  ^tI^^  ? 

TliD"ai^  A^t^t1)s  ©spiTfjes  a  ^rtjssfe  Tariet j  ©f  meaasing  a^d 
c-lMled  "iu  fmM:  ^glasses  ^  ra :  f^V^  flms?^  ^m&M^  s "  '"^ 


To  tl^©  i^iiae^tioas  ^.i^-^5,  zifivsi.j'  Ib^^j,  J^i^  &fU^  ;  as-^  TAen^ 
'lli^j  aB&'war  ta  tits  ^■oie>stiQ>Q  limir ;  ^  IIkg;mnth^y  faitTa- 


ot      53)  a?' 


COHrSTEUCTITE  GRAMMAR.  TT 

la  laaocJifymg  the  Eoeassssng  of  the  verb  ylides,  what  does  it  poiat  out  f 

It  pmDts  OBt  tfee  'mann&r  of  its  «c?«ots. 

To  'w^ta^  ir}s£37  i]ii»B,  iSa«3  it  Ibelosg  ? 

It  beloBgs  to  tlie  class  of  Manner, 

EXERCISES. 

The  jiirer  £©W3  rapidly.  The  bird  flies  swiftly.  He  is 
tliert.  Where  is  ThoBias  ?  Why  do  you  delay  ?  ^  The 
lo"?f^erii>g  clouds  saoTe  slowly.  Wc?  shall  get  the  mail  to- 
inorro?r.  Wlien  shall  I  hear  from  you?  He  is  not  at 
hoiae.  The  ireather  is  very  coM,  She  writes  excee^.i®gly 
well.     Sarelj  he  'wili  retura  soon. 


LESSOK  XXX. 


WhaSi  is  a  Pr*po3iti»a  ? 

A  J^re^d^ti&n  is  a  word  issed'  to  co-Dn-ect  i^iorda,  and 
show  the  rdatioa  bet"we«a  tliena^  as^  Hq  went  to  New 
York. 

Bem. —  To-^  m  this  se^itenee,  conrreets  went  and  Neiw 
York,  amd  i'^^  also^  siiows  the  rdation  whic-b  iV^(^'i^  JVr^ 
Ibears  t&  t^^Ti^.  The  eo5iE»ec^ive  «|uality  >?ill  readily  be  per- 
eeiy<5di  hj  %m\l%mg  the  preposition  ^  thus.  Ho  went  New 
Tork.     il^r©  the-  total  want  ©tf  connection  is-  obyioiis- 

S5nc8  ??e7s>os:iti03is  «jaa»ci  worcSs,  ao^showr  tkft  ralatioo  batwaeu  tbs.ia>, 
lo7»  ma^iy  terriiS  mast  everj  Prepeeitioa  havj  ? 

Tuf tDv  Tis. :  Antevede'^if  ar«d  ^^s-^5'2i?e»f. 

Tbe  .-4j)j?<?^i?!ft?^w#term:r»  sa>  eallicd^  because  it  prvcei^es'tlir 
Pre-pseitiixffi  Ba  th-«-  Jiatural  order  of  cccatrujction. 

What  la  ih9  S^'H^sq^uenlf  iexm  ? 

Tlio  5?  ifeb&e'^iie'iat  ts-rm  fclloivs  the  Frep'Cssition  m  the'  natiji- 
aai  Qrdiic  of  constructio;!.. 


•  6  youk'-s  illustrative  And 

What  parts  of  speech  may  be  used  as  the  Antecedent  term  ? 

A  noun  or  pronoun,  verb,  partieiple,  adjective,  andeVen 
•an  adverb. 

What  may  be  used  as  thf«  Subsequent  f 

A  noHR,  pronoun,  iparticiple,  or  part  of  a  sentence. 

REM.-^When  a  Participle  is  used  as  a  Subsequent  tem^ 
*of  a  Preposition,  it  partakes  of  the  meaning  of  a  noun^, 
and  is  frequently  called  by  graifemarians  a  Participial 
'noun ;  as.  He  earns  a  livelihood  by  ioriting» 

In  what  case,  is  the  Subsequent  term  of  every  Preposition  ? 

It  is  in  the  'objective  case,  and  governed,  by  the  Preposi- 
■tion. 

In  order  to  ascertain  what  words  are  connected  by  Pre- 
positions, you  mu^^  make  the  sense  your  guide,— guided 
by  this,  you  will  generally  be  able  to  determine  what  words 
are  Prepositions,  aind  what  they  connect,  without  the  aid 
of  a  List  of  Prepositions. 

MODEL. 

Lot  fled  with  his  two  daughters,  from  Sofem  to  thfe 
mountains. 

Prom  is  a  PreptJsition,  and  conn-^cts  fied  and  Sodom, 
and  shows  the  relation  between  th^,  according  to  Rule 
XXX. 

Re^i. —  With  attd  to,  in  the  abovfe  example,  are,  also^ 
Prepositions,  having  the  same  Antecedent  term^et^ ;  hence 
it  will  be  perceived  that  several  Prepositions  may  have  thfe 
same  Antecedent  term. 

Why  iB/rom  a  Preposition? 

Because  it  connects  words,  and  shows  the  relation  be> 
'tween  'them. 

-EXE^CI-S^. 

There  was  a  marriage  in  Cana  of  ^(iafiee.  The  suti 
shines  through  the  window  upon  the  floor.  Birds  fly  in 
the  air.     A  green,  narrow  vale  appeared  before  us ;  its 


CONSTRUCtlVE   GRAMMAR.  79 

irmdmg  stream  murmured  through  the  grove ;  the  dark 
hosts  of  Rothma,r  stood  on  its  banks,  with  their  glittering 
spears.  She  sits  at  the  window.  Her  ways  are  ways  of 
plessiintness. 


LESSON  XXXI. 


OF  CONJUNCTIONS   OR  CONNECTfVES. 
What  is  a  Conjunction,  or  Connective  ? 

A  Conjunction  is  a  word,  used  to  connect  phrases  anS 
clauses  of  sentences,  and,  also,  words  of  the  same  con- 
struction, thereby  enabling  the  speaker  or  writer  to  con* 
tinue  discourse  at  pleasure ;  as,  Wheat  grows  in  the  field, 
and  men  reap  it.     Martha  Und  Mary  were  sisters. 

Are  Conjunctions  ever  used  after  a  full  point,  or  period? 

They  are  sometimes  ;  thereby  manifesting  some  relation 
tetween  sentences  in  the  general  tenor  of  discotrS^. 

How  are  Coi^junctions  generally  dividM? 

They  fets  ^generally  divided  itto  Copulative  and  Disjunc- 
tive. 

Is  this  division  important  ? 

,  It  is  net-;  but  is,  perhaps,  worse  than  useless.  (See 
Illustrative  and  Constructive  Grammar;  also,  Dr.  Web- 
ster's Improved  Grammar.) 

Name  the  principal  Conjunctions,  used  in  connecting  discourse? 

They  are  a?nUj  hut,  or,  nor,  yet,  than,  if,  though,  \est,  un- 
less, &c. 

(For  the  classification  of  Connectives',  see  Elements  of 
^sentences,  Vo^vi  First.) 

MCB&L. 

KjroA  'created  the  heavens  and  the  earth. 

And  is  a  Conjunction,  and  connects  ktavcns  and  earth, 
according  to  Rule  22. 


80  tokk's  illustrative  and 

Rem. — In  parsing  Conjunctions  which  connect  phrases 
and  clauses^  no  rule  need  h&  applied. 

EXERCISES, 

Clay  and  Webster  were  distingiiished  Senators.  Time 
slept  on  flowers,  and  lent  his  glasses  to  hope.  The  wicked 
is  driven  away  in  his  wickedness ;  but  the  righteous  hath 
hope  in  his  death.  Marj  and  Eliza  play.  James  will  im- 
prove, if  he  study.  Obey  my  precepts,  unless  you  wish 
to  injure  your:jeIves,  Ignorance  or  negligeiice  has  caused 
this  mistake. 


LESSOI^  XXXL 

OF  INTERJECTIONS  OR   EXCLAMATIOI^S. 
TTBaa  is  an  Exclamation   [loterjeetion}'? 

An  JExdamation  is  any  sudden  expression  of  joy,  griefy 
disgust,  calling,  &c.;  as,  O' joyful  sound  ©f  gospel  grace!! 
Aim  I  I  f*ear  f«>r  life  1  Turn  from  your  eril  ways^  0  house 
©f  Israeli  &c. 

Rem.  1 — Considering  the  etymological  import  of  the 
term!  Interjection,  it  will,  perhaps,  be  conceded  by  all  that 
the  Rame  is  inappropriate  ^  since  but  comparatively  few  of 
the  words  called  Interjections,  are  thrown  betvjeen  the  parts* 
®f  a  sentence ;  the  term  Mxclamation  is,  therefore,  to  be^ 
preferred.  This  m  recommtend'ed  by  Dr,  Webster  and  cipher 
able  philologists. 

Rem..  2 — Siace  ExdasE-ations-  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction, they  can  have  ao  government^  nor  scarcely  cai^ 
they  be  said  to  belong  to  written  language* 

MODEL. 

Alas!  and  did  my  Saviour  bleed? 

Ala%  is  aa  Exclamation  [Interjection]^;  it  is  an  expro^^ 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  81 

sion  of  grief;  it  has  no  dependent  construction  in  the  sen- 
tence, according  to  Rule  XXXL 

EXERCISES. 

Oh!  what  a  fall  was  there.  Lo !  from  their  seats,  the 
mountains  leap.  Alas  !  I  fear  for  life.  Ah  !  whither  shall 
I  fly  ?  What !  take  my  money,  and  my  life  too  !  Fie  ! 
how  angry  he  is. 


LESSON  XXXIII. 


OP  THE  CASES  INDEPENDENT,    ABSOLUTE,    AND   APPOSITION. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  t«  be  in    the  Nominative  case  Indt- 
pendent  ? 

It  is  said  to  be  in  the  Case  Independent  when  directly 
addressed ;  as,  James ^  I  desire  you  to  study. 

When  Is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  the  Nominative  Case  Absolute  ? 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  placed  before  a  participle, 
having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  it  is  in  the  nominative 
case  Absolute ;  as,  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our 
journey. 

When  is  a  noun  or  pronoun  said  to  be  in  AppoeitioQ  ! 

When  a  noun  or  pronoun  is  appended  to  another  noun 
or  pronoun  for  explanation  or  emphasis,  it  is  said  to  be  in 
Apposition  with  it ;  as,  Paul,  the  great  Apostle,  was  emi- 
nent for  his  Christian  zeal,  v.:  \- 


Rem. — As  the  case  in  Apposition  must  always  agree  in 
case  with  the  principal  word,  it  must  be  construed  in  the 
same  member ;  as,  [Daniel  Webster,  the  distinguished 
Statesman  and  Orator,  now  reposes]  (in  the  silent  grave.) 

MODEL  I. 

Boys,  study  your  lessons. 


82  YORK'S  IiLLUSTRA53i)VE  AND 

Boys  is  a  common  noun,  masculine  gender,  second  per* 
son,  plural,  and  is  in  the.  Nominative  case  Independent,, 
according  to  Hule  27. 

MOiDEL  2. 

/being  in  great  haste,  he  consented. 

I  is  a  personal  pronoun,  of  the  first  person,  singular,, 
and  in  the  nominative  case  Absolute,  according  to  Rule  28». 

MODEL  3. 

John,  the  beloved  Disoiphy  T?;as.  banished. 

Disciple  is  a  Qommon  noun^,  of,  the  masculine  gender,, 
third  person,  singular,  and  is  ia  the  nominative  case,,  put 
by  Apposition  "vrith  John,  according  to  Rule  3. 

EXERCISES. 

Young  man,,  jon  have  ruined  yourself,  and  injured  your 
friend.  Horace,,  thou  learnest  niany  lessons.  Thp  Giene- 
ral  being  slain,  the  army  was  routed,  l^he  moori,  hayiftg. 
risen,  we  resumed  our  maj-ch,.  The  Bujbtierfly,  child  of  the 
summer,  fluttors  in  th^.  snn.  She  descending,  the  ladder 
fell.  Make  nat  my  Esther's  house,  a  house  of  merchan- 
dise. Ye  fieljis  of  light,, celestial  plains,  ye  scenes  divinely 
fair,  proclaim,  your  Maker's  wondrous  power. 


PBOMISCUOUS  EXERCISIS;. 

[Yon  may  now  iaialyze,  Construe,  and  Parse  tho  foUowiing  sentences 
which  contain  ali  the  Parts  of  speech;  you  may,  also,  assign  the  reason  fur 
tho  punctuation,  and  quote  the  rules.] 

Eliza  went  with  Mary  to  the  well  for  water.     The  All 
wise  Creator  bestowed,  the  power  of  speech  upon  man  for 
the  best  purpose.     I^^jj^e  Cynthia  declining  clips  the  hori- 
zon.    Man  beholds  the  twinkling  stars  adorning  night's, 
blue  arch.     Rothmar  sunk  beneath  my  sword.     Thou  who. 


CONSTRUCTJiYE   GRAMMABa.  8^3 

hast  been  a  witness  of  the  fact,  canst  state.it>-.  Thje^rain 
having  ceased,  the  dark  clouds  rolled  away.  Beneath  the 
pale  beams  of  the  moon,  the  Indian  lovqr  sat,  and,  in 
piteous  tones,  bewailed  her  sad  condition.  If  youth  be 
trifled  away  without  improvement,  manhoods  will  be  con- 
temptible, and  old  age,  miserable.  The  sun.  shines-  upon 
all  men  who  will  receive  his  rays  which  he  sendg.from  the 
heavens.  John  the  Baptist  cg.me,  preaching  in.  the  wilder- 
ness of  JudiCa.  Jesus  departed,  and  went  into  th^  payts  of 
QaUlee. 

There  ^  shall  bathe  my  woary  sobI 

In  seas  of  heavenly  rest, 
And  not  a  wave  of  trouble  roll  , 

Across  my  peaceful  breast. 

We  had  heard;  the  news  before  the  messenger  arrived.  The 
wofk  might  have  been  finished  sooner.  Susan,  may  visit 
her  sister  who  liyes  in  the  country ;  but  Lucinda  must  rt - 
mjttn  at  home  with  her  mother.  Go  ye  into  all  the  world, 
and  preach  my  Gospel  to  every  creature. 

Alas  !  the  joys  that  fortune  brings, 

Are  trifling,  and  decay ; 
And  those  who  mind  the  paltry  things, 

More  trifling  still  than  they. 

The  value  of  the  Christian  faith,  may  be  estimated  from 
the  consolations  which  it  affords.  He  leadeth  me  in  the 
paths  of  righteousness,  for  his  name's  sake.  The  eyes  of 
a  fool  are  in  the  ends  of  the  earth.  The  good  taste  of  the 
present  age,  has  not  allowed  us  to  neglect  the  cultivation 
of  the  English  language.  True  cheerfulness  makes  a  man 
happy  in  himself,  and  promotes  the  happiness  of  ali  who 
are  around  him. 

Charles,  you,  by  your  diligence,  have  made  easy  work 
of  the  task  which  was  given  you  by  your  preceptor.  Bo- 
naparte being  banished,  peace  was  restored  to  Europe. 
Boys,  study  your  lessons  closely,  if  you  "wish  to  succeed. 
Paul,  the  great  Apostle  of  the  Gentles,  suffered  martyr 
dom  at  Rome.  Why  seek  ye  the  living  among  the  dead  ? 
Canst  thou  expect,  thou  betrayer  of  innoccQpe,.  to  escape 
th^  hand  of  vengeance  ? 

She  makes  the  heavy  heart  to  sing, 

And  cheers  the  wintry  gloom, 
Floats  on  the  ppicy  galee  of  spring, 

Apd  njiv^es  all  Nature  blpoc^ 


84  YOEK's  tLLUSTRJLTIVE  AND 

Dost  thou  not  behold,  Malvina,  a  rock  with  its  head  of 
heath  ?  The  law  was  given  by  Moses  ;  but  grace  and  truth 
came  by  Jesus  Christ.  John,  the  Apostle,  was  banished 
to  the  isle  of  Patmos. 

Your  frienflls  may  die,  and  haste  away 

To  that  blest  world  of  rest ; 
But  Mary's  part,  with  you,  will  stay, 
.  And  ever  make  jrou  blest. 


LESSON  XXXIV. 

OF  SYNTAX. 
Of  what  does  Syntax  treat  ? 

It  treats  of  the  construction  of  sentences. 

Do  yott  remember  what  &  sentence  is  ? 

A  sentence  is  such  an  assemblage  of  words  as  asserts  a 
fact. 

What  elements  are  necessary  to  Assert  a  fact  f 

The  Subject  and  Predicate ;  as,  The  sun  shines. 

Upon  what  rrineiples,  are  most  of  the  rules  of  Syntax  feased  ? 

They  are  mostly  based  upon  three  principles,  viz :  Gov- 
ernment, Agreement,  or  Concord,  and  Position. 

In  what  does  Government  consi£(? 

Government  is  that  power  which  one  word  has  m  direct- 
ing the  Mode,  Tense,  or  Case  of  another  word. 

What  is  Agreement  or  Concord  ? 

Concord  is  the  agreement  of  one  word  with  another  in 
^4nder,  persom,  number,  and  case. 

What  is  Position  ? 

Position  is  the  place  which  a  word  occupies  in  a  sen^ 
tence. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR,  85 


LESSON  XXXV, 

RULES   OF    SYNTAX. 

RULE  I — The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
Rative  case  ;  as,  John  writes, 

RULE  II — A  noun  or  pronoun,  predicated  of  the  sub- 
ject, must  be  in  the  nominative  case;  as,  Thou  a,rt  he. — 
Law  is  a  rule  of  action. 

RULE  III — A  noun  or  pronoun,  used  to  identify  another 
noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  same  case : 
as,  Solomon,  the  son  of  David,  wrote  many  proverbs. 

RULE  IV — A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case, 
is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits ;  as,  Johns  book. 
His  being  mvay  from  home,  was  the  cause  of  great  disap- 
pointment. 

RULE  V — The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  it  limits ;  as,  They  ^ve7it  TO  see  him.  She  is  eager 
TO  LEARN.     I  heard  him  say  it. 

RULE  VI — The  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in 
number  and  person  ;  as,  Thou  seest.  He  sees.  1  ^ee.  We 
see,  &c. 

RULE  VII — Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  and,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  ia 
the  plural ;  as,  Cato  and  Plato  were  wise. 

RULE  Viri — Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  singular ;  as  John  or  James  was  ill, 

RULE  IX — When  a  verb  agrees  with  the  Infinitive 
mode  or  part  of  a  sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  in 
tiie  third  person  singular  ;  as,  To  die  for  one's  country,  ii 
glorious.     To  study  is  profitable. 

RULE  X — A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  unify, 
generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it  in  the 
singular;  as.  The  nation  teas  once  powerful,  but  now  it  h 
feeble. 

RULE  XL— A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plu- 
7 


86  yokk's  illustrative  and 

rality,  generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  in  the  plural ;  as^ 
The  committee  tvere  divided  in  their  sentiments. 

KULE  XII — Pronouns  agree  witli  their  antecedents  in 
gender,  number,  and  person  ;  as,  John  lost  his  knife.  He 
who  studies,  will  improve. 

RULE  XTII — The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns  in 
the  singular  number  ;  as,  A  man.     An  hour. 

RULE  XIV.* — The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of 
both  numbers  ;  as,  The  man.      The  men. 

RULE  XV — Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns; 
a-s,  A  good  man.     She  is  handsome. 

RULE  XVI — Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infin- 
itive mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence;  as, 
To  see  is  pleasant.  Agreeable  to  this,  ive  read  of  names 
being  blotted  out  of  God's  book. 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  hence 

RULE  XVII — Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  action 
of  verbs,  and  to  express  the  qualities  of  things  in  connec- 
tion with  the  action  by  which  they  are  produced  ;  as.  Open 
thine  hand  ivide.  The  eggs  boil  hard.  The  tree  looks 
green. 

RULE  XVIII — Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  Mary  having  ivritten  her  letter,  mailed  it.  I 
see  him  2oaUci7ig. 

RULE  XIX — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  I  saw  HIM 
lohom  you  met. 

RULE  XX — The  object  of  a  transitive  participle  is  put 
in  the  objective  case;  as,  I  saw  a  man  beating  his  horse. 

RULE  XXI — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
objective  case  ;  as,  Henry  went  with  me. 

RULE  XXII — Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same 
sort ;   as,  John  and  James.     Good  and  bad,  etc. 

*  This  18  not  important,  since  there  is  no  possibility  of  violating  it> 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  87 

RULE  XXIII — A  Conjunction  connects  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns of  the  same  case ;  as,  Ilenrj  and  William  obey 
their  teacher. 

RULE  XXIV — Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
of  like  modes  and  tenses;  as,  Kingdoms  rise  and /a??. 

RULE  XXV — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs ;  as,  He  writes  hadly. 

RULE  XXVI — Euphony  requires  that  the  sign  to  of 
the  infinitive  should  be  omitted  when  construed  with  the 
following  verbs,  viz ;  hid^  dare^  feel,  make,  let,  hear,  help, 
see,  need,  and  their  participles ;  as.  He  bid  me  come.  We 
felt  the  earth  tremble,     I  heard  him  speak,  etc. 

RULE  XXVII — When  an  address  is  made,  the  name 
of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  is  put  in  the  nominative^' 
cme  independent ;  as,  James,  I  desire  you  to  study. 

RULE  XXVIII — A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  nor  word 
on  which  to  depend,  is  put  in  the  nominative  case  absolute  ; 
as.  The  sun  having  risen,  we  pursued  our  journey. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode 
have  no  nominative  specified ;  as,  *'  God  said,  let  there  be 
light,  and  there  was  light. 

RULE  XXX — Prepositions  point  out  the  relation  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms ;  as,  Henry 
went  to  the  citi/  of  Neiv  York, 

RULE  XXX/.— Exclamations  [Interjections]  have  no 
dependent  construction. 

Rem. — The  last  three  rules  may  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may 
be  omitted — just  as  it  may  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 


*  It  would  be  better,  perhaps,  to  drop  the  word  nominative,  and  eimiMy 
say  "  The  case  independent." 


SB  YORK'S   ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  XXXVI. 

OF  RULES   OF  SYNTAX  TflTH   NOTES  ;   AND   SENTENCES  TO  BE 

CORRECTED. 

RULE  I. — The  subject  of  the  verb  must  be  in  the  nomi- 
native case;  as,  ^' John  writes/' 

Note  1. — The  infinitive  mode^  or  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole 
sentence,  may  be  the  subject  of  a  verb ;  as,  ''  To  see,  is  pleasant." — 
"  To  die/or  one's  country,  is  glorious." 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  the  subject  of  a  verb,  it  must  take 
the  subjective  form  ;  as,  "/,  tlwu,  he,  she,  we,  they,  etc. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"  Them  told  it." 

Is  this  sentence  correct  T 

It  is  not. 

Why? 

Them  is  used  as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  but  has  not  the 
subjective  form.  It  should  be,  "  They  told  it,''  according 
to  Rule  1. 

EXERCISES. 

[Correct  the  sentences  under  each  rule,  and  parse  the  words  corrected.] 

Him  struck  first.  Her  was  not  to  blame.  Them  were 
in  fault.  Who  said  it  ?  Me  said  it.  Him  is  in  the  field. 
Her  is  at  home. 


LESSON  XXXVII. 

RULES  AND  CORRECTIONS  CONTINUED. 

RULE  II— A  noun  or  pronoun,  predicated  of  the  sub- 
ject, must  be  in  the  nominative  case;  as,  '*  Thou  art  he." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"  John  is  Am." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GllAMMAR.  89 

Is  this  eontence  correct  f 

It  is  not. 

Him  is  predicated  of  the  subject  John,  but  is  not  in  the 
Tiominativ^  case,  or  has  not  the  subjective  form.  It  should 
be,  "John  is  7w?,"  according  to  rule  2. 

EXERCISES. 

Is  it  me  ?  I  thought  it  was  him.  Mary  was  not  her. 
That  boy  is  him.  She  said  it  was  them.  It  was  her  that 
told  it.     Is  it  him  with  whom  h<e  is  angry  ? 

RULE  III. — A   noun   or   pronoun,   used    to    identi" 
iinother  noun  or  pronoun,  is  put  by  apposition  in  the  o... 
case;  aa,  "Cicero,  the  Orator, '' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"He  took  it  to  be  L'" 

Is  thk  sentence  eorrect? 

It  is  not 

State  the  reason. 

/  is  used  to  identify  it,  but  is  not  in  the  same  case.  It 
should  be,  "  He  took  it  to  be  me'' 

EXERCISES. 

I  believe  it  to  be  she.  She  mistook  me  to  be  he.  We 
adore  the  Divine  Being,  He  who  sustains  all  things.  It 
was  John,  him  who  preached  repentance.  I  saw  Mary,  she 

that  you  visited. 


LESSON  XXXVIII. 

RULE  IV.— A  noun  or  pronoun  in  the  possessive  case, 
Is  governed  by  the  word  which  it  limits  ;  as,  "  Johns 
book." 


trO  York's  illustrative  and 

Note  1. — The  possessive  case  of  nouns  should  always  be  distin- 
guished by  an  apostrophe. 

Note  2. — Nouns,  pluralized  by  s,  retain  the  apostrophe,  rejecting 
the  additional  s  ;  as,  Those  boys^  books. 

Note  3. — Any  noun  ending  in  a  hissing  sound,  followed  by  another 
commencing  with  a  hissing  sound,  retains  the  apostrophe  only ;  as 
"  Eighteousyiess'  sake." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
"  That  girls  book  is  on  the  table." 

Is  this  sentence  correct  ? 

It  is  not. 

Point  out  what  is  wrong,  and  correct. 

Girls  is  in  the  possessive  case,  but  not  distinguished  by 
the  apostrophe.  The  apostrophe  should  be  inserted  be- 
tween the  I  and  s  ;  thus,  That  girVs  book. 

EXERCISES. 

Those  hoys  books  are  cleaner  than  that  girls  book.  The 
boys  hat  is  under  the  bed.  Peters  dog  bit  Johns  finger. 
The  Lords  day  should  be  kept  holy.  He  does  it  for  con- 
science sake. 

RULE  V. — The  infinitive  mode  is  governed  by  the  word 
which  it  limits  ;  as,  "  They  ivent  to  see  him." 


LESSON  XXXIX. 

RULE  VI. — A  verb  must  agree  with  its  nominative  in 
.number  and  person  ;  as,  "Thou  «egsf."  "He  sees.^'  ""1 
see.''     "  vVe  see.'' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

''lloveth." 

Is  this  sentence  correct .' 

It  is  not ;  for  the  verb  loveth  has  the  termination  of  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  91 

third  person  singular,  solemn  style.  It  should  be  love  to 
agree  with  its  nominative  1  of  the  first  person,  singular, 
according  to  Rule  VI. 

EJ^RCISES. 

He  are  at  home.  I  is  not  well.  Thou  has  come  at  last. 
The  girls  has  returned.  He  hast  three  books.  You  has 
a  fine  dress.  The  last  week  were  very  hot.  She  take 
Snuff.     I  just  shuts  my  eyes,  and  goes  it. 

RULE  VII.— Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  and,  must  have  verbs  agreeing  with  them  in 
the  plural;  as,  "  Cato  and  Plato  were  wise." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Henry  and  William  has  returned," 

Is  this  sentence  correct/ 

It  is  not  ? 

Why  .? 

The  verb,  has  returned,  has  the  singular  form,  but  it  has 
two  nominatives  in  the  singular  connected  by  aiid;  it  should, 
therefore,  be  Henry  and  William  have  returned,  according 
to  Rule  VII. 

EXERCISES. 

Martha  and  Mary  was  sisters.  John  and  Peter  loves 
play.  David  and  Jonathan  was  strongly  attached  to  each 
other.     Eliza  and  her  sister  has  gone  into  the  country. 


LESSON  XL. 


RULE  VIII.— Two  or  more  nominatives  in  the  singular, 
connected  by  or  or  nor,  must  have  verb?  agreeing  with 
them  in  the  singular  ;  as,  "  Jo'in  or  James  icas  ill." 


92  York's  illustrative  ajtd 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
''■James  or  Thomas  have  done  tliirf  mischief." 

How  do  you  correct  this  sentence  ? 

It  should  be,  James  or  Thomas  has  done  this  mischief- 

Wby  ; 

Because  the  verb  must  be  singular  to  agree  with  its 
nominatives  in  the  singnlary  connected  by  or,  according  to 
Rule  YIIL 

EXERCISES. 

Either  he  or  she  are  to  blame.  Neither  Henry  nor  Tho- 
mas u'ere  in  fault.  Ignorance  or  bigotry  were  the  cause  of 
this  cruelty.  Neither  the  miser  nor  the  spendthrift  are- 
happy. 

RULE  IX — -When  a  verb  agrees  ■with  the  infinitive 
mode  or  part  of  a  sentence  for  its  subject,  it  must  be  of 
the  third  person,  singular ;  as,  "  To  ^ee^  is  pleasant/' 
"  To  die  for  one's  country,  is  glorious.'* 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"To  seek  God,  are  "vvisdom." 

Is  this  sentence  Gorrect'? 

It  is  not. 

Stitt,  t^BC  reaso'ii. 

The  verb  has  the  plural  form,  whereas  it  has  part  of  a 
sentence  for  its  subject ;  it  is,  therefore,  incorrect.  It 
should  be,  To  seek  God,  is  wisdom,  according  to  Rule  IX. 

EXERCISES. 

That  the  earth  is  a  sphere,  are  easily  proved.  To  see 
our  friends,  are  pleasant.  To  publish  slanderous  words, 
are  wrong.  To  seek  our  own  happiness  by  violating  the 
rights  of  others,  are  contrary  to  the  Golden  Rule.  To 
learn,  are  pleasant. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  93 

RULE  X- -A   collective  nonn  conveying  idea  oi'  nj?;t,^ 

zTif  feeble/''  ''^'  "^"^^  P^^^^^^"^  -'  ^"^  now 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
^'  The  council  were  unanimous," 

Is  this  sentence  correct  ? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason  why  it  is  not  correct? 

The  nominative  is  a  collective  noun,  conveying  idea  of 
unuy;  the  verb,  therefore,  should  be  kngular^  fhuf  The 
council  ii'as  unanimous.  °  "-,  -mt 

EXERCISES. 

The  society  meet  annually,  f  he  meeting  toere  large. 
The  army  were  routed.     Congress  have  adjourned.        ' 

RULE  XI-A  collective  noun  conveying  idea  of  plu- 
rahty,  generally  has  a  verb  and  pronoun  agreeing  with  it 
m  the  plural;  as,  "The  council  lerc  divided  in  theirZn- 
Linients. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
»''The  committee  was  divided  in  its  sentiments.' 
Say  the  committee  were  divided  in  their  sentiments. 

Why  should  the  verb  and  prououo,  in  this  sentence,  be  plural.? 

Because  the  noun  committee  conveys  the  idea  of  vhi- 
raliti/.  "  '    ^ 

EXERCISES. 

The  people  loas  divided  in  its  sentiments,  some  adherin^^ 
to  one  faction,  and  some  to  another.  The  multitude  pui- 
sues  pleasure  as  its  chief  good. 


LESSON  XLL 
RULE  X7/.— Pronouns  agree  with  thcjr  uDtccedcni 


s  in 


94  York's  illustrative  and 

gender,  number,  and  person;  as,   "John  lost  his  knife." 
''  He  who  studies,  will  improve." 

Note  1. — When  the  relative  relates  to  antecedents  of  different  per- 
sons, it  may  agree  with  either ;  but,  when  the  agreement  has  been 
determined,  it  must  be  continued  tliroughout  the  sentence;  as,  "  Thou 
art  the  Lord,  loho  didst  choose  Abraham,  and  didst  bring  him  forth 
out  of  Ur  of  the  Chaldees." 

Note  2. — When  a  pronoun  relates  to  two  or  more  antecedents  in 
the  singular,  connected  b}"-  and^  it  must  be  in  the  plural ;  but,  if  its 
antecedents  are  connected  by  or  or  noi\  it  must  be  in  the  singular. 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Every  one  must  take  care  of  themselves.'* 
Say  every  one  must  take  care  of  himself. 

Why  should  it  be  himself? 

Because  the  antecedent  one  is  singular,  the  pronoun 
must,  also,  be  singular,  according  Rule  XII. 

EXERCISES. 

Every  body  is  accountable  for  their  own  conduct.  Every 
tree  bears  fruit,  according  to  his  own  kind.  Speak  to  the 
men,  and  say  to  him.  The  wheel  killed  another  man  who 
is  the  sixth  that  has  lost  their  life  by  this  means. 

RULE  XIII — The  indefinite  article  belongs  to  nouns 
in  the  singular  number  ;  as,  A  man.     An  hour. 

Note. — A  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with  a  conso- 
nant sound,  and  A.n  should  be  used  before  words  commencing  with 
vowel  sounds ;  as,  A  book.     An  apple. 

Rem. — It  is  more  euphonious  to  use  An  before  words  commencing 
with  A  when  the  accent  is  on  the  second  syllable;  as,  An  historic 
account. 

EXERCISES. 

The  children  have  been  playing  a  hour.  I  saw  an  man 
walking.  She  is  an  beautiful  lady.  An  horse  is  a  noble 
animal.  A  century  is  an  hundred  years.  A  honest  man 
is  an  great  man. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  95 

LESSON  XLII. 

EULE  X/Y— The  definite  article  belongs  to  nouns  of 
both  numbers  ;  as,  "  The  man."     "  The  men." 

EULE  XV— Adjectives  belong  to  nouns  and  pronouns  ; 
as,     A  cfood  man."     "  She  is  heautifuir 

Note  1.— Such  specifying  adjectives  as  are  varied  to  express  num- 
oer,  must  agree  in  number  with  the  nouns  to  which  they  belong  ;  as. 
This,  that,  these,  those.  ^  ^ '      * 

"  These  sort  of  goods  is  not  fashionable.  Say,  This  sort  of  goods 
IS  not  fashionable. 

EXERCISES. 

Those  sort  of  favors  does  real  injury.  Those  kind  of 
truit  is  not  good.  /  am  not  pleased  with  these  sort  of  ex- 
pressions. 

Note  2.— Specifying  adjectives  of  the  numeral  kind,  require  nouns 
to  agree  in  number ;  as,  Om  man.     Ten  men. 

"  The  wall  is  ihvQo  foot  high."     Say,  The  wall  is  ihiQefeet  high. 
EXERCISES. 

The  pole  is  twenty  >o^  long.  The  sound  is  thirty  mile 
Wide,  and  three  fathom  deep.  The  Ohio  is  one  thousand 
miles  long.     The  room  is  ihivty  foot  long  and  twenty  wide. 

^.?Yr  ^-7- double  comparatives  and  superlatives  should  not  be  used  ; 
as,  ''il/orc  better."     "il/o^^  extremest." 

"The  most  Highest  hath  created  us  for  His  own  glory."     Sav  The 
most  High  hath  created,  Scq.  ^     j  j, 

EXERCISES. 

I  will  show  you  a  more  better  way.  That  is  the  most 
tallest  man  /ever  saw.  He  is  worser  than  he  was.  That 
IS  the  most  weakest  argument  I  have  ever  heard. 

cT.?'?^^'^'""^'^^"  two  objects  are  compared,  the  comparative  degree 
should  be  us^ed  ;  and,  when  three  or  more,  the  superlative;  as,  Mary  is 
taller  than  her  sister.     Th:U  is  the  tallest  tree  in  the  forest 


96  York's  illustrative  and 

James  is  the  tallest  of  the  two.     Say,  James  is  the  taller  of  the 
two. 

EXERCISES. 

He  is  the  iviser  of  the  three.  This  is  the  best  of  the 
two  ways.  Henry  is  the  strongest  of  the  two.  She  is  the 
better  of  her  class. 


LESSON  XLIII. 


RULE  XVI— Adjectives  sometimes  belong  to  the  infini- 
tive mode,  part  of  a  sentence,  or  a  whole  sentence;  as, 
"- To  see^  is  pleasant^  '' Agreeable  to  this,  we  read  of 
names  being  blotted  out  of  God's  book." 

Quality  may  be  predicated  of  action ;  as, 

RULE  XVII — Adjectives  are  used  to  qualify  the  ac- 
tion of  verbs,  and  to  express  the  qualities  of  things  in 
connection  with  the  action  by  which  they  are  produced  ; 
as,  "  Open  thine  hand  ^vide."     ''The  trees  look  green." 

FALSE  SYNTAX 

"  Still  water  runs  deeply.'" 

Is  this  sentence  correct ' 

It  is  not.  It  should  be,  still  water  xxm^deep,  according 
to  Rule  XVII. 

EXERCISES. 

The  fields  look  freshly  and  gayly.  She  looks  coldly. 
The  clay  burns  whitely.  The  rose  smells  sweetly.  Apples 
boil  softly. 

RULE  XVIII — Participles  refer  to  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns ;  as,  "J  see  him  walking."  '■^  Mary  having  written 
the  letter,  mailed  it." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  97 


LESSON  XLIV. 

RULE  XIX — The  object  of  a  transitive  verb  in  the 
active  voice,  is  put  in  the  objective  case;  as,  "I  saw  him 
whom  you  met." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Who  seest  thou  ? 

\i  this  sentence  correct  ?  ' 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reason. 

Who  is  the  object  of  the  transitive  verb  seest  in  the 
active  voice ;  but  has  not  the  objective  form ;  it  is,  there- 
fore, incorrect,  and  should  be,  Whom  seest  thou  ? 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  they  we  know.  They  who  will  not  study,  you 
must  correct.  He  that  is  studious,  you  should  encourage. 
She  that  is  negligent,  reprove  sharply.  Who  does  he  revile. 
He  declare  I  unto  you. 

RULE  XX — The  object  of  a  transitive  participle,  must 
be  in  the  objective  case ;  as,  "  I  saw  a  man  heating  his 
horse.'" 

RULE  XXI — The  object  of  a  preposition  is  put  in  the 
objective  case;  as,  "  Henry  went  with  me.''' 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

"  Who  did  you  walk  with?" 

Is  this  sentence  correct  ? 

It  is  not. 

State  the  reafon,  and  correct  it. 

Who  is  the  object  of  the  preposition  ivith ;  but  has  not 
the  objective  form.  It  should  be,  With  tvhom  did  you 
walk  ?  according  to  rule  XXI. 


08  York's  illustrative  and 


EXERCISES. 


He  gave  the  fruit  to  /.  Between  /and  you,  there  is  a 
trreat  disparity  of  years.  The  teacher  spoke  to  he  and  I. 
With  who,  does  he  trifle  ? 


LESSON  XLV. 


RULE  XXII — Conjunctions  connect  words  of  the  same 
sort;  as,  ^^  John  ami  James,''  Good 'dnd  had."  '^Grace- 
fully and  rapidly.'' 

Rem. This  rule  should  only  be  applied  when  conjunctions  connect 

words. 

RULE  XXIII — Conjunctions  connect  nouns  and  pro- 
nouns in  the  same  case  ;  as,  "  Henry  and  William  obey 
their  teacher."  "They  assisted  1dm  and  me."  ''David' s  and 
Jonathan's  friendship." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Eim  and  I  went.     Say,  He  and  I  went. 

EXERCISES. 

He  and  them  have  no  dealings.  He  sent  it  to  her  and 
I.  She  and  me  are  cousins.  Him  and  they  are  brothers. 
He  went  with  her  and  I.     Who  will  go  ?     lie  and  me. 

RULE  XXIV — Conjunctions  generally  connect  verbs 
of  like  modes  and  tenses  ;  as,  "  Kingdoms  rise  and  fall." 


LESSON  XLVL 


RULE  XXV — Adverbs  modify  verbs,  participles,  ad- 
jectives, and  other  adverbs  ;  as,  "  He  writes  well." 


CONSTKUCTIVE   GRAMMAR.  99 

rJnot;;I«.",-::"'"''  TuX-7''-  "  «<'-'/' ^houW  be  employed. 

EXERCISES  FOR  CORRECTION. 

Clouds  are  moving  slow.  That  young  lady  sings  sweet. 
The  bell  rings  merry.  Time  flies  rapid.*'  Siie  can'no  ^0/; 
good.     He  writes  bad.     That  boy  walks  awkward. 

l-„!l?™  w~^"'i'^''^^^.'"'y   n<=g!'t'vcs   should   be  iivoided- a.!   X  ,lo„'i 

FOR  CORRECTION. 

He  7z.z..r  says  ^.f7,in^.  He  haint  got  no  move.  He 
don  t  do  nothing.  In  our  neighborhood,  no  body  never 
take  no  newspapers.  j     c.t-i 

RULE  XXyi--Euphony  requires  that  the  sicrn  to  ot* 
the  infinitive  should  be  omitted  when  construed  with  the 
ollowing  verbs   VIZ.-  bid,  dare,  feel,  help,  make,  let,  hea;^ 
..W    and  their  participles;  as,  -He  bid  me  come} 
We  felt  the  earth  tremble;'  etc. 

Nora.— When  these  verbs  are  used  in  the  Passive  voice   the  si-n 
IS  used;  as,  *'He  was  often  heard  to  say^  '  ^ 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 
Let  him  to  go.     Say,  Let  trim  go. 

EXERCISES. 

Bid  him  to  depart.  I  felt  the  earth  to  shake.  I  heard 
her  to  say  Help  him  to  work.  He  need  not  to  attend. 
I  saw  the  child  to  walk.  He  dare  not  to  do  it.  Make  the 
man  to  work. 


LESSON  XLVII. 
RULE  XXVII— When  an  address  is  made,  the  name 


100 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


of  the  person  or  thing  addressed,  is  put  in  the  nominative 
case  independent;  as,  ^'- James,  I  desire  you  to  study." 

RULE  XXVIII — A  noun  or  pronoun,  placed  before  a 
participle,  and  having  no  verb  to  agree  with  it,  is  put  in 
the  nominative  case  absolute ;  as  "  The  sun  having  risen, 
we  pursued  our  journey." 

FALSE  SYNTAX. 

Me  being  in  great  haste,  he  consented.  Say,  I  being 
in  great  haste,  he  consented. 

EXERCISES. 

Me?'  descending,  the  ladder  fell.  It  was  said  to  me,  him 
being  in  company.  It  was  said  of  them,  him  being  present. 
Her  being  in  distress,  the  necessary  aid  was  sent. 

RULE  XXIX — Some  verbs  in  the  imperative  mode, 
have  no  nominative  specified  ;  as,  "  God  said,  let  there  be 
lifrht.  and  there  was  lifrht." 

RL^LE  XXX — Prepositions  point  out  the  relations  be- 
tween their  antecedent  and  subsequent  terms  ;  as,  "  He 
went  to  the  city  of  Neio  York.'' 

RULE  XXXI — Interjections  have  no  dependent  con- 
struction. 

Rem. — The  last  three  rules  may  be  used  in  parsing,  or  they  may  be 
omitted— just  as  it  may  suit  the  taste  of  teachers. 

TO  BE  CORRECTED  BY  THE  "DIAGRAM  OF  TIME." 

MODEL — "  I  finished  my  letter  before  the  mail  ar- 
rived." 

The  verb  finished  is  in  the  past  tense,  whereas  it  is  used 
in  the  pior  of  two  past  events ;  the  verb,  therefore,  is  in- 
correct ;  it  should  be  had  finished  in  the  pluperfect,  accord- 
ing to  Figure  4  of  the  "Diagram  of  Time." 

EXERCISES. 

We  have  studied  our  lessons  yesterday.  I  never  drank 
better  water.     We  came  here  to-day.     Philosophers  have 


CK5NSTRUCTIVE   CxRAMMAR.  101 

made  great  discoveries  last  century.  After  I  have  quoted 
the  text,  you  will  see  its  application.  After  I  visited  Eu- 
rope, I  returned  to  America.  The  thief  escaped  bcfoic 
the  goods  were  missed.  John  will  complete  his  task  by 
the  appointed  time.  The  world  will  have  been  destroyed 
by  fire. 


LESSON  XLViri. 

'    False  Syntax  Promiscuously  Arranged. 

1  John  writes  beautiful.  I  shall  never  do  so  no  more. 
This  is  him  who  I  gave  the  book  to.  Eliza  always  appears 
amiably.  That  house  is  sixty  foot  long.  Was  j^ou  present 
as  the  procession  passed.  He  who  they  seek  is  in  the 
house.  Her  mother  and  her  were  at  the  celebration.  The 
master  requested  him  and  I  to  read  our  compositions  more 
distinctly. 

2  Those  sort  of  books  are  beautiful.  What  does  you 
think  of  him  now  ?  Thou,  Thomas,  shall  see  those  animals 
of  which  you  speak.  Who  went  with  Mary  to  church  ? 
Me.  Let  us  to  proceed.  To  love  God  with  all  thy  heart 
are  a  divine  command.  Neither  man  nor  woman  were 
present. 

3  High  hopes  and  ambitious  views  is  a  great  enemy  to 
tranquility.  Has  you  been  well  since  I  seen  you  last  ?  I 
has.  A  too  great  variety  of  studies  weaken  and  dissipate 
the  mind.  He  has  went  to  town.  He  might  have  com- 
pleted the  task  sooner,  but  he  could  not  do  it  better. 


LESSON  XLIX. 

Of  Colloquial  Inaccuracies. 

As  Colloquial  Inaccuracies  are  too  numerous  and  vancd 
to  be  comprehended  by  any  syntactical  rules,  however 

8 


102 


YORK  S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 


copious,  we  have  thrown  together  some  of  the  maficuraeies, 
and  arranged  the  correct  and  incorrect  expressions  in  par- 
allel columns.  Though  these  colloquial  inaccuracies  may 
vary  not  only  in  different  States,  but^  also,  in  different 
sections  of  the  same  Static,  yet  they  may  nearly  all  bo 
traced  to  three  leading  sources,  viz  :  1  Unwarrantable 
Contraetions.  2  Redundant  words  or  Pleonastic  exj)res- 
sions,  and  3  Words  hadly  chosen  to  convey  the  sense  m- 
tendeci 

CLASS  L 

Unwarrantable  Contractions. 

Though  some  contractions  are  admissible  in  familiar 
style,  yet  they  s^sould  he  carefully  avo-ided  in  all  grave  or 
solemn  discourse. 


Incokuect. 

I  aiWi  well, 

I  Jia'sWd  been  oaty 

We  wer''nH  there, 

She'd  heard  of  it^ 

I  iis^d  to  know  it^ 

Ihe  seen  Vr, 

I  hpose  ^ttnll, 

Lay  ^em  on  the-  table^ 

Gini  nie    some  bread, 

A  good^cel  too  short, 

He  haint  none, 

You  do'n^t  know  '?'w>, 

John^s  got  onougb, 

Can^t  sh&  g,o? 


CORUBCT. 

I  am  not  wet?, 

I  haye  not  been  out. 

We  were  not  there, 

She  had  hmird  of  it, 

I  used  to  know, 

I  have  seen  her, 

I  suppose  it  will. 

Lay  them  on  the  table^ 

GJTe  me  some  bread, 

Very  much  too  short, 

He  has  none, 

You  do  not  know  hin>, 

John  has  enough, 

Can  she  not  go  f 


CLASS  IL 
Keduxdant  Wokds,  or  Pleokastic  Expressions^ 
Incorrect.  Correct. 


1  could  not  ffet  to  gc>, 
The  speaker  rose  'up^ 
He  fell  dowtiy 

Up  above, 

Vp  over, 

Down  under. 

He  mentioned  it  over  again, 

2  will  repeat  it  again^ 


I  could  not  go. 

The  speaker  rose. 

He  fell, 

Above, 

Over, 

Under, 

He  mentioned  it  again, 

I  will  repeat  it, 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR. 


103 


Incorrect. 

They  both  met, 
He  c.innot  tcllj'^o;-  why, 
Retiii-n  had-  ininiediately, 
lie  went,  but  will  soon  come 

hach  again. 
Where  shall  I  go  to'> 
He  was  in  here, 
AVe  entered  into  the  casp, 
1  am  a  iJ:;<)in<:;, 
He  is  a  walking. 
Can  you  go  V   To  he  sure. 
D'ye  see  that  ihar  man  V 
I\'e  done  said  it, 
But  he's  done  done  it, 
How  do  you  do  ? 
He  has  got  enough, 
^lary  she  went, 
John  he  said  it, 
Susan  her  bonnet, 
George  his  book, 
Bring  me  them  there  quills, 
This  hero  book, 
That  there  book, 
Loohy  there, 


Correct. 

They  met. 

He  cannot  tell  why. 

Return  immediately. 

He  went,  but  will  soon  return, 

Where  shall  I  go  ? 

He  was  here, 

AVo  entered  the  cave, 

I  am  i-oing. 

He  is  walking, 

Can  you  go  ?     Surely, 

Do  you  sec  that  man  ? 

I  have  said  it. 

But  he  has  done  it, 

How  are  you  ? 

He  has  enough, 

Mary  went, 

John  said  it, 

Susan's  bonnet, 

George's  book. 

Bring  me  those  quills. 

Thin  book. 

That  book. 

Look  there. 


CLASS  liL 
Words  Badly  Cho.sex. 


Incorrect. 

I  am  (//•//, 

Put  out  the  candle, 

(jiive  tne  them  books, 

I  rechon  it,  will  rnn, 

1  guess  it  is  cnonjjh. 

]  cnlfvlaJe  to  return, 

You  rend  right  well. 

She  cannot  hear  good. 

Jam  monstrous  jjlad  to  sec  you. 

He  iwis  »  hea/f  (;f  money, 

1  want  )i  Inidhj, 

A  great*  territory. 

The  Erricson  is  n  big*  ship, 

Webster's  large*  muid, 


Correct. 

T  nm  thirsty, 

Extinguish  the  lig'«t. 

Give  uie  those  boukv, 

1  think  it  will  ram, 

I  think  it  is  enou^h, 

I  intend  (or  pui  pose)  to  return, 

You  re-d  veiy  wei', 

She  cannot  hear  well, 

I  am  iilad  to  see  3'OU, 

He  h;is  much  money, 

1  want  it  much, 

A  l.aye  tfrritiifv. 

I  ne  Krri'soii  i^  a  1   rpc  ship, 

Webster's  great  roind. 


*  Great  is  npplirable  to  inentnl  mcastirement,  large  to  the  measure- 
ment of  solid  bodies,  and  hig  to  some  unnatural  increase  or  swelling. 


104 


r-* 


TORK  S  rLLUSTRATIYE  AND 


Incorrect. 

He  is  io  the  store, 

My  mother  learned  me  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  rifflit  bad^ 

It  rains  hard, 

A  ?ia7'd  battle, 

A  little  hit  «  sentence, 

I  got  up  at  7  oclock, 

I'll  do  as  well  as  I  Mn, 

Yoii'ones  ought  to  go^ 

Are  yous  all  well  ? 

You  unzes  can  stay, 

I  hioioUl  it  was  Am, 

He  is  gwine  home, 

I  seen  her, 

I  hearn  her, 

I  taken  it  to  be  him, 

You  had,  letter  go, 

They^f  half  an  hour, 

I  allowed  he  had  come, 

He  allowed  to  me, 

I  admire  at  you, 

Me  and  you  think  alike, 

Ouch  !  how  it  burns, 

The  storm  legun  to  subside, 

^QfoteTied  it, 

I  sot  out  on  my  journey, 

Let  us  walk  out,  and  take  the 
fresh  ar, 

They  air  at  homo, 

Crockett  was  a  great  bar  hun- 
ter, 

Thar  he  stands, 

He  chaws  his  own  tobacco, 

I  can't  mind  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  those  mo- 
lasses,* 

I  am  sceared  of  robbers, 

I  S6e  him  last  Monday, 

Why  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  she  was  not 
repaired, 

Let  the  Sicertery  record  the 
names. 


Correct. 

He  is  at  the  store. 

My  n^olher  taught  mo  the  let- 
ters, 

I  want  it  very  much^ 

It  rains  fast, 

A  fierce  battle, 

A  small  sentence, 

I  rose  at  T  oclock, 

ril  do  as  well  as  I  can. 

You  ought  to  go, 

Are  you  all  well  ? 

You  can  stay, 

I  knew  it  was  he, 

He  is  going  home, 

I  saw  her, 

I  heard  her, 

I  took  it  to  be  him, 

You  would  do  better  ^o  go. 

They  fought  half  an  hour, 

I  supposed  he  had  come, 

He  suggested  (or  said)  to  mo. 

I  wonder  at  3''ou, 

You  and  I  think  alike. 

Oh !  how  it  burns. 

The  storm  began  to  subside. 

He  brought   it, 

I  set  out  on  my  journey. 

Let  us  walk  out  and  take  the 
fresh  air, 

They  are  at  home, 

Crockett  was  a  great  bear  hun- 
ter, 

There  he  stands, 

He  chews  his  own  tobacco, 

I  cannot  recollect  it, 

I  will  take  some  of  the  (or  that) 
Molasses, 

I  am  afraid  of  robbers, 

I  saw  him  last  Monday, 

AVhy  did  you  not  bring  the 
plow  ?  Because  it  was  not 
repaired, 

Let  the  Secretary  record  the 
names. 


*  Molasses  is  strictly  singular,  being  the  syrup  which  drains  from 
Muscovado  suy-ar  while  cooling. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GRAMMAR,  105 

Incokhect.  Correct. 

1  am  2ncTty  nigh  frozen,  1  am  nearly  frozen, 

Pach  the  wheat  off  to  mill,  Tale  (or  send)  the  wheat  to 

mill, 
Pack  her  off  to  church,  Take    (or    conduct)     her     to 

church. 


LESSON  L. 


PUNCTUATION   OR  GNOMONOLOGY. 
What  is  punctuation  ? 

Punctuation  is  the  art  of  dividing  a  written  composi- 
tion into  sentences,  clauses,  and  phrases,  in  order  to  make 
the  stops  which  the  sense  of  the  sentiment,  its  grammatical 
.construction,  and  an  accurate  pronunciation  require. 

What  aro  the  principal  stops  used  to  denote  these  pauses  ? 

They  are  the  comma  [,],  the  semicolon  [;],  tlie  colon  [:], 
he  period,  or  full  full  stop  [.],  the  interrogation  [?],  the 
jxclamation  [!],  the  parenthesis  [()],  and  the  dash  [ — ]. 

Into  how  many  classes,  may  these  gnomons,  idices,  or  points  bo  divided  1 

They  m.ay  be  divided  into  two  classes,  viz  :  such  as  sepa- 
rate parts  of  a  sentence,  and  those  which  separate  entire 
Sentences.  The  former  are  the  comma,  semicolon,  colon, 
xlash,  and  parenthesis.  The  latter  are  the  period,  the  in- 
terrogation, and  exclamation  points. 

As  the  characters,  used  in  punctuation,  commonly  called 
^tops,  are  mere  grammatical,  they  are  intended  to  point 
lout  the  sense  of  the  construction,  rather  than  to  indicate 
Ihe  length  of  time  the  reader  or  speaker  should  pause  at 
each  point. 

The  Comma  ( . ). 

The  comma  is  used  to  indicate  the  shortest  pause ;  it  is, 
ialso,  used  to  denote  the  ellipsis  of  some  words. 

The  principal  uses  of  the  comma  arc  exhibited  in  the 
•following  rules  and  remarks. 


106  York's  illustrativk  and 

RULE  I^When  the  construction  of  a  simple  sentence 
is  interrupted  by  an  adjunct,  loosely  thrown  between  its 
parts,  it  must  be  separated  by  a  comma  before  and  after 
it ;  as,  '•  Law,  in  its  most  confined  sense^  is  a  rule  of  human 
action."  "Charity,  like  the  sun,  brightens  exerj  object 
around  it." 

RULE  II — "When  the  grammatical  subject  of  a  propo- 
sition is  modified  by  a  subordinate  clause,  or  by  an  adjunct 
considerably  extended,  the  logical  subject  should  be  sepa- 
rated from  the  predicate  by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  The  hail  which 
fell  last  week,  hsidlj  mjured  the  standing  crops."  "The 
intermixture  of  evil  in  hitman  society^  serves  to  excrcii:* 
some  of  the  noblest  virtues  of  the  human  soul." 

Rem. — If  the  modifying  element  is    short,    the    cofoma    may    b^ 
omitted;  as,  "The  end  (?/  all  tilings  is  at  hand/' 

RULE  III — When,  by  transposition,  the  suh  or  inferiov 
member  occupies  the  place  of  its  swper,  it  may  be  separa- 
ted by  a  comma  ;  as,  "  By  doing  good  to  others,  we  secure 
the  approbation  of  our  own  conscience."  ^^  From  me,  they 
flee." 

RULE  ly — The  nominative  case  independent,  and  sever- 
al of  the    interjections,  arc  separated  by  commas,  sine*' 
they  are  not  elements  of  a  sentence, — consequently  nc 
closely  connected;  as,  '^ My  son,  give  me  thy  heart."   '*  1 
you  will  assist  me,  James,  I  will  accompany  you."     '^  Lo, 
from  their  seats,  the  mountains  leap." 

Rem.  1. — When  the  case  mdependent  is  modified  by  an  adjunct, 
the  comma  should  be  placed  after  it ;  as,  John  of  liichm&nd,  come 
forth. 

Rem.  2. — When  a  pronoun  is  joined  with  a  noun  in  making  an  ad" 
dress,  it  should  not  be  separated  from  the  noun  ;  as,  "  Ye  scenes  dl' 
xinelyfair,  proclaim  your  Maker's  wondrous  power." 

Rem.  8. — Those  inteijections  which  express  a  very  stiong  emotion 
or  feeling,  are  iienerully  followed  by  an  exclamation  point;  as,  ''Ah! 
whither  shall  I  lly  ?" 

Rem.  4 — When  a  conjunction  introduces  an  example^  or  is  separated 
by  some  intervening  words  or  phrases,  from  the  member  to  which, 
it  belongs,  it  should  be  separated  by  a  comma;  as.  Prepositions  gov- 
ern the  objective  case;  ««,  "With  him,  I  went,"  '' Foi\  for  this  cause, 
yay  ye  tribute  also. 


•  CONSTRUCTIVE  GRAMMAR.  107 

'Kemt,  5. — An  adverh,  or  perhaps  any  other  word,  thrown  off  from 
the  member  to  which  it  belongs,  shouid  be  separated  by  a  comma; 
as, 

"  Soon  borco  on  Time's  mos't  rapii  wing, 

Shnli  Death  command  yoxi  to  hie  bar." 

Rem,  0, — Words  off  ©thcrs  repeated,  but  not  as  <\ notations,  and  also 
words  and  phrases  repeated  for  emphasis,  {■:houl<l  be  separated  by  a 
-comma  or  commas;  as,  ^'  Thus  shalt  thou  say  to  the  children  of  Israel, 
i  AM  kath  eent  m,e  unto  ymC     ^'-  Hapi^yi  ^i^J^py,  ^'^^-fPU-,  pair." 

J.IULE  V — ^The  case  absolute  with  words  depcmlinj^  on 
it,  participles  and  adjectives  witli  words  depending  on  them, 
should  be  separated  From  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  com* 
mas;  as,  ''^Bonaparte  being  banished^  peace  was  restored 
to  Europe."  His  talents,  formed  for  gr^eal  enterpra^^ 
♦could  not  fail  t'O  render  him  conspicuous. 

"  Jesus,  'loit,  *n  thy  lovers  shine, 

rilu'trious  as  the  sun, 
And,  h-ri^ht  tcitk  bon'otocd  ray  ddviney 

Their  glorious  circuit  run." 

Re?l  1 — When  a  participle  immediately  lollows  the  word  on  whu:h 
it  depends,  takcR  in  a,  restrictive  sense,  the  comma  should  be  omitted 
before  the  participle;  us,  '*  lie  being  ridiciokil^  left  the  institution." 

Rem.  2 — When  a  participle,  without  an  adjunct,  is  separat^ed  from 
the  word  on  which  it  depep.ds  iti  construction,  a  comma  is  generally 
inserted  before  and  a'fter  it;  ais,  "S'knd,  when  he  Was  come  near,  he 
Oeheld  the  city,  and  wept  over  it,  myuKj^  if  thou  ha(5st  knvAwn,  etc.'" 

RULE  YI — When  tkc  relative  is  so  closely  ctnmected 
\v\t\\  its  antecedent,  that  it  v'ill  iwt  j/dmit  of  tr.ins]).>sition, 
it  should  not  be  separated  from  it  by  a  comuia ;  as,  ''  Henry 
saw  hats  which  he  wanted," 

Rem.  1 — The  relative  may  be  scptiraled  by  a  comma,  when  its  ante- 
cedent is  used  in  a  j::;eneral  sense  ;  as,  "  Man,  irho  is  born  of  woman 
is  of  few  days,  and  full  of  trouble." 

Rem.  2 — A  comma  shouW  be  placed  before  tlie  relative  when  a  word 
•or  phrase  intervenes  between  it  and  its  antecedent;  as,  "He  gave  mc 
the  p>i<i<^  of  Jwi  apple,  wliic^i  he  (ound."" 

Rem.  S — When  the  relative  clause  is  broken  by  the  introdniMion  of 
a  sub-member,  the  relati.'e  ma}'^  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  by 
n  comma;  a,s,  "An  old  clock,  wnicii,  for  Jifty  y^ars,  had  stood  in  & 
farmer's  kitchen,  suddenly  stopped." 

JIeu^  4  —  Wh€Q  the  relative  cJau.se  is  involved,  and  readily  adQ)it.s  of 


lOS  TOKK's  ILLUSTnATIVE  AKD  , 

transposition,  the  relative  may  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  hj  n 
comma;  as,  "'The  lady,  i^hose hou^'se  ic-e  occtq>y^  bestows  many  char- 
ities." 

Rof.  5 — In  such  ei^araples  as  the  last,  the  comma  is  frequently 
emitted  before  the  relative,  nor  does  the  construction  really  demand 
that  the  relative  should  be  separated  from  its  antecedent  in  any  case, 
except  as  noticed  in  Remark  2. 

RULE  VII — When  a  conjunction  is  understood  in  con- 
necting words  in  the  same  construction,  its  place  should 
be  supplied  bj  a  comma,  and^  also,  when  the  verb  of  a 
simple  member  is  understood ;  as^  "  He  is  a  flain^  lioneBt 
man/'  From  law,  arises  security  ;  from  Meurity,  curiosity; 
from  curiosity^  knawledge/'  etc. 

RULE  VIII— -Three  or  more  words  oecurriag  m  the 
same  construction,  with  their  conjunction  expressed  or  un- 
derstood, should  all  be  separated  by  commas,  except  the 
last :  aSj  "  I>aYid  was  a  brave,  wise,  pious,  and  generou» 
man." 

Observation — The  reason  why  the  last  word  is  not 
separated,  is,  because  it  is  either  in  juxta-position  with  its 
super,  or  closes  a  sentence^ 

R.EM.  I — If  they  arc  nominatives,  writers  generally  separate  the 
last  also  •,  as,  The  head,  the  Jieart,  and  the  hands,  should  be  eOHStantly 
employed  in  doing  good," 

Rem.  3 — When  words  are  connected  in  pairs,  the  pairs  only  should- 
be  separated;  aa,  '■'Interest  and  ambition,  honor  a.Yid  sha.7ne,  friench 
i-hip  and  enmity,  gratitude  and  revenge,  are  the  prime  movers  in 
public  transactions." 

Rem.  o — Words  or  phases,  placed  antithetically,  should  be  separated 
bv  commas ;  ay,  "  Though  deep,  yet  clear ;  though  gentle,  yet  not 
dulV 

Rem.  4 — When  the  conjunction  or  joiiis  oa  a  ':^ord  which  expresses 
an  alternative  o-f  words,  and  not  of  ideas,  it  should  be  separated  by  a 
comma ;,  aa,  "  He  saw  a  large  hay,  or  gul/y 

Re31.  5— When  }dirams  are  connected  by  conjunctions,  they  arc 
regulated  by  the  same  rules  as  single  words. 

RULE  IX— When  any  tense  of  the  verb  "  To  Be"  is 
followed  by  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  which,  by  ti'ans- 
position,  may  be  made  ihe  nominative  case  to  it,  the  former 


CONSTKUCI  -111 

VJl   GRAMMAR.  Ill 

is  generallj  separated  fron,^^^^^  j,^  ,^^^  sub-.ncmbcr,  of  whicli 
as,      liie  best  preservative  -y  that  of  the  super-member,  the  idea 
rnu      •   z'  micolon  should  be  used  to  separate 

Kem   1— Ihc  infinitive  mode  al'^re  ;  so  is  a  contentious  man  to  the 
Khould  be  sepnrated  from  the  rest 
'^  To   correct  the  spirit  of  discontcu 
deserve." 

Rem.  2 — When  the  infinitive  mode  or  a  part  of  a  sentence  is  used 
as  the  subject  of  the  verb,  it  is  generally  separated  from  it  by  a  corn- 
ea; as,  "  To  dieforone^s  country^  is  glorious." 

Rem.  3 — When  a  verb  in  the  infinitive  mode,  is  separated  from  the 
word  on  which  it  depends  in  construction,  a  comma  is  generally  placed 
before  it ;  as, 

0,  for  a  glance  of  heavenly  day, 
To  TAKE  this  stubborn  heart  away." 

RULE  X — Modifying  words  and  phrases,  as,  hoivever. 
nay,  hence,  therefore,  besides,  in  short,  finally,  formerly, 
etc.,  are  usually  separated  by  commas  ;  as,  "  It  is,  however ^ 
the  task  of  criticism  to  establish  principles." 

RULE  XI — The  members  of  a  compound  sentence, 
whether  successive  or  involved,  should  be  separated  by 
commas ;  as,  "  The  boy  wounded  the  old  bird,  and  stole 
the  young  ones."  "  Providence  has,  I  thinks  displayed  a 
tenderness  for  mankind." 

Rem.  1 — Those  modifying  clauses  which  are  joined  on  b}''  such 
subordinate  connectives  as  do  not  limit  the  verb  in  the  preceding 
clause,  should  be  punctuated  as  co-ordinate  clauses;  as,  "  The  hue- 
bandman  is  happy,  if  he  Inoivs  his  advantages ^ 

Rem.  2 — In  comparative  sentences  whose  members  arc  .short,  the 
comma  should  not  be  used ;  as,  "  Wisdom  is  better  than  goldy 

RULE  XII — The  case  in  apposition  with  its  adjunct, 
should  be  separated  from  the  rest  of  the  sentence  by  com- 
mas; as,  "Paul,  tlic  great  apostle  of  the  Ocntilea,  was 
eminent  for  his  Christian  zeal.  ' 

Rem. — If  the  case  in  apposition  is  unaccompanied  by  any  modifying 
word  or  phrase,  no  comma  should  be  used;  as,  *' The  patriarch  Joseph 
wud  !u;  illustrious  example  of  true  piety." 


108  York's  illusti 

lATIVE  AND 
transposition,  the  relatire  may  be  scp 
CDmma;  as,   ''The  \2k(\\'f  iihost' ho'u^'ie 

^^^^"•"  "  COLON-, 

Rem,  5 — In  such   e:taraplc3  as  tV„  i^  *i        ^i 

emitted  before  the  relative,  nor  cV  ^  ^^"S^^'  P^^^^  ^^^^^  ^^^^  ^0^^* 
♦'"'f  the  relative  sb-^v^^^  Vj  seuaT--^  <^i^e  to  tAVO. 

The  semicolon  is  placed  between  the  clauses  of  a  period 
which  are  less  closely  connected  than  such  as  are  separa- 
ted by  commas. 

IIULE  I — When  the  first  division  completes  a  proposi- 
tion, so  as  to  have  no  dependence  on  what  follows,  but  the 
following  clause  lias  a  dependence  on  the  preceding,  the 
two  parts  are  separated  by  a  semicolon;  as,  "The  one  has 
all  that  perfection  requires,  and  more,  but  the  excess  may 
be  easily  retrenched  ;  the  other  Avants  the  qualities  requisit<} 
to  excellence." 

Rem. — In  general,  then,  the  semicolon  separates  the  divisions  of  a 
sentence,  when  the  latter  division  has  u  dependence  on  the  former, 
whether  the  former  has  a  dependence  on  the  latter  or  not. 

RULE  II — When  several  mcnibers  of  a  sentence  have 
a  dependence  on  each  other,  by  moans  of  a  substitute  tor 
the  same  principal  word,  and  the  clauses,  in  other  respects, 
constitute  direct  propositions,  the  semicolon  may  be  used  ; 
as,  "Wisdom  hath  builded  her  house;  she  hath  hewn  out 
her  seven  pillars;  she  hath  killed  her  beasts;  c<f///.' hotli 
mingled  her  wine;  g/i^hath  also  furnished  her  table." — Fro- 
verbs  ix. 

RULE  ril — k.  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separate 
premises  and  conclusions ;  as,  "Man  is  mortal ;  therefore 
he  must  die."  "  Cicsar  deserved  death ; /or  he  was  a 
tyrant." 

RULE  IV — The  semicolon  is  generally  used  to  separator 
an  example,  introduced  to  illustrate  a  rule  or  proposition ; 
as.  The  subject  of  a  verb  must  be  in  the  nominative  case ; 
as,  Wasliington  was  President." 

Rem. — The  above,  with  some  variation,  are  the  rules  generally  given 
by  punctuists,  to  direct  the  learner  to  a  proper  use  of  the  semicolon. 

It  ivill  be  seen,  however,  that  the  principles,  on  which  the  proper 
ap^jlication  ot  this  point  is  based,  are  found  in  the  perception  of  a  re- 
semblance  and  cvnirast. 


CONSTRUCTIVE   GIUMMAR.  Ill 

When  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-nicnibcr,  of  which 
something  similar  is  predicated,  to  that  of  the  super-member,  the  idea 
is  that  of  resemblance;  and  the  semicolon  should  be  used  to  separate 
the  members  ;  as,  "  As  wood  is  to  fire  ;  so  is  a  contentious  man  to  the 
production  of  strife." 

But,  when  a  new  subject  is  introduced  in  the  sub-mcnibcr,  and  of 
which  something  antithetical  is  affirmed,  to  what  is  affirmed  in  the 
super-member,  the  idea  is  tiiat  of  antithesis  or  contrast;  consequentl}' 
the  members  should  be  separated  by  a  semicolon  ;  as,  "  The  inise  shall 
inherit  glor}^ ;  hat  shame  shall  be  the  promotion  of/00^.9."  Hence 
the  following  rule  will,  in  most  cases,  be  sufficient  to  direct  the  learner 
to  a  proper  application  of  this  gnomon,  or  point. 

RULE  V — When  resemblance  or  contrast  is  afTirmed  in 
the  sub-racmber,  the  incmbers  should  be  separated  by  a 
semicolon;  as,  '' Heaven  is  the  region  of  gentleness  and 
friendship ;  hut  hell  of  fierceness  and  animosity."  "The 
wiclccd  flee  when  no  man  pursueth  ;  but  the  righteous  are 
as  bold  as  a  lion."  ''  Eliza  is  beautiful ;  and  so  is  Mary,'' 


THE  COLON. 

The  time  generally  gi^^en  to  the  colon  (: )  is  double  that 
of  the  semicolon. 

RULE  I — AVhen  the  things  affirmed  in  the  latter,  or 
sub-member,  are  adapted  to  the  condition  of  the  things 
mentioned  in  the  former,  or  super- member,  the  colon  may 
be  used  to  separate  the  members ;  as,  "  Man  is  a  great 
sinner  :  Christ  is  a  great  Saviour.'' 

RULE  II — When  that  which  is  affirmed  in  the  latter, 
or  sub-member,  is  illustrative  or  conlirmatorv  of  what  is 
affirmed  in  the  former,  or  super  member,  the  colon  may  be 
used;  as,  "Man  cannot  arrive  at  a  point  here,  which  he 
cannot  pass:  he  is  to  advance  in  the  next  world.'  "Mr. 
Gray  was  followed  by  Mr.  Erskinc  T.ho  spake  thus :  1 
rise  to  second  the  motion  of  my  honorable  friend.'* 

Rem.  1  —  When   the   colon    is   used,   the  connective   is   generally 

omittc<l. 

Rem.  2— Our  best  writers  have  frcqucnily  confounded  the  colon 


112  York's  illustrative  and 

and  semicolon.  The  truth  is,  the  colon  is  nearly  obsolete ;  conse- 
quently but  sparingly  used  b}'-  the  best  writers  of  the  present  age. — 
{See  Dr.   Webster'' s  Improxied  Graminm\  Page  154.) 

Reji. — The  practice  of  writers  is  far  from  being  uniform,  with  re- 
gard to  the  point  to  bo  used  in  introducing  direct  quotations.  Some 
use  the  colon,  some  the  semicolon,  and  others,  the  comma. 


THE  FERIOD. 

The  period,  or  full  point  ( . ),  marks  a  completion  of  the 
sense,  a  cadence  of  the  voice,  and  the  longest  pause  used 
between  sentences.  It  closes  a  discourse,  also,  or  marks 
the  completion  of  a  subject  or  section. 

Rem. — And  it  is  also  used  in  abreviating  words,  and  is  placed  after 
initials  when  used  alone;  as,  "  Eev.  Frest.  Craven,  J).  i>."  "  C.  F. 
Deems,  D.  i>."     ''Ron.  David  L.  Swain,  L.L.  i>." 

THE  DASH  AND  PARENTHESIS. 

The  Dash  ( — )  is  used  where  there  is  a  significant  pause, 
an  unexpected  transition  in  the  sentence,  or  where  a  sen- 
tence is  left  unfinislied  ;  as,  *'  If  thou  art  he — hut  0,  how 
fallen!"  • 

The  Dash  is  now  frequently  used  instead  of  the  Paren- 
thesis ;  as,  "  The  Colonists — such  is  human  nature — de- 
sired to  burn  the  town  in  which  they  had  been  so  wretched." 

The  Parenthesis  ()  is  used  to  enclose  a  part  of  a  sentence 
not  necessary  to  the  construction,  but,  in  some  way,  ex- 
planatory of  the  meaning  of  the  sentence;  as,  "Consider 
(and  may  the  consideration  sink  deep  in  your  hearts)  the 
fatal  consequences  of  a  wicked  life." 


INTERROGATION  POINT. 

The  Interrogation  point  (?)  is  used  when  a  question  is 
asked ;  as,  Do  brutes  reason  ? 

Rem.— When  two  interrogative  members  are  closely  connected,  the 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  113 

comma  is  generally   used  iiftcr  the  first,  and  the  inter  rogation  point 
at  the  close  of  the  last  member ;  as, 

"  When  sball  I  reach  that  happy  place, 
And  be  fofcver  blest  ?" 


EXCLAMATION    POINT. 

The  exclamation  point  (!)  is  used  after  an  exclamativo 
sentence  ;  as,  "  How  vain  are  all  things  here  below  I"  It 
is  also  used  after  phrases  expressive  of  emotion ;  as,  *'  0, 
happiness  !  our  being's  end  and  aim  !" 


BRACKETS. 

Brackets  ( ]  )  are  used  when  a  word  or  phrase  is  intro- 
duced for  explanation  ;  as,  ''  He  [the  Professor]  explained 
It). 


QUOTATION  MARKS. 

Quotation  Marks  ( '*  " )  are  used  to  include  a  passage 
taken  verbatim  from  some  other  author  ;  as,  He  said,  "  I 
relinquish  my  claim.'' 


THE  CARET. 

The  Caret  ( A  )  is  used  in  writing  to  show  that  some  let- 
lies 
ter,  word,  or  phrase,  has  been  omitted ;  as,  "The  book  upon. 

A 


THE  HYPHEN. 

The  Hyphen  ( - )  is  used  to  separate  the  parts  of  a  com-, 
pound  word  ;  as.  Book -binder.     AVhcn  placed  at  the  end 


114  York's  illustrative  and 

of  a  line,  it  sliows  that  a  word  is  divided,  the  remaining  part 
beins:  carried  to  next  line. 


THE  ELLIPSIS. 

The  'Ellipsis   ( )   is  used  to  denote  the  omission  of 

certain  letters  or  worda  ;  as,  Y k,  K g. 


THE  INDEX. 

The  Index  (jl^^)  points  to  some  remarkable  passage. 


ACCENT. 

The  accent  is  a  character  used  to  point  out  the  accented 
sylable  of  a  word,  whether  long  or  short.  Our  ancestors 
borrowed  throe  of  these  characters  from  the  Greek  lan- 
guage, viz :  the  acute  (r),  the  grave  (\),  and  the  circum- 
flex (a).  The  acute  points  out  the  rise  of  voice  ;  the  grave, 
the  fall ;  and  the  circumflex  unites  both  of  these  in  one, 
and  makes  an  undulation  of  the  voice.  The  breve  (^— )  is 
placed  over  an  unaccented  syllable  in  poetry  ;  and  the 
dash  ( — )  is  used  over  the  accented  syllables  ;  as. 


"  With  rav 
The  mon 


ishcd  (.Tirs, 
arch  hears." 


THE  APOSTROPHE. 

The  apostrophe  (')  is  used  as  a  sign  of  the  possessive  case, 
and  also  to  mark  the  omission  of  a  letter  in  the  syncopa- 
tion of  Avords  ;  as,  "This  is  Jo  7/?i's  book."  "  ^>?i  now 
where  Alpine  solitudes  ascend." 


CONSTRUCTIVE    GRAMMAR.  115 


THE  ASTERISK. 

Three  asterisks  (***)  show  that  some  indelicate  expres- 
sion has  been  omitted,  or  that  there  is  some  defect  in  the 
manuscript. 

The  asterisk  (*),  the  obelisk  (f),  the  double-dagger  (J), 
and  parallels  (||),  are  only  used  as  foot  notes,  or  references 
to  the  margin. 


LESSON  LI. 


OF   CAPITALS. 

The  following  words  should  begin  with  capital  letters  ; 

1  The  first  word  of  every  distinct  sentence. 

2  Proper  names  and  titles  of  office  or  honor ;  as, 
*'  Greorge  Washington,  General  Lee,  Judge  Story,  aS^^V 
Walter  Scott,  the  Ohio,  Main  Streets 

3  The  name  of  an  object  personified,  may  be  used  as  a 
proper  name,  and  should  then  begin  with  a  capital ;  as, 
'^  Gentle  Spring.'' 

4  Adjectives  derived  from  proper  names;  as,  '^Ameri- 
can, English,  Roman.'' 

5  The  appellations  of  the  Deity ;  as,  "  God,  the 
Almighty."     "The  Supreme  Being." 

6  The  first  word  of  every  line  of  poetry. 

7  The  first  word  of  a  direct  quotation,  when  the  quota- 
tion is  a  complete  sentence  of  itself;  as,  "  Christ  says, 
''My  yoke  is  easy.'  " 

8  Every  noun  and  principal  word  in  the  titles  of  books  ; 
^,  "  Popes  Essay  on  Man." 

9  The  pronoun  1  and  interjection  0  are  written  in  capi- 
tals. 

10  Any  word,  when  of  particular  importance,  may  be- 
gin with  a  capital. 


116  yOEK'S  ILLUSTRATIVE  AND 

LESSON  LII. 

OF   VERSIFICATION. 

Poetry  is  metrical  composition,  or  it  is  the  language  of 
passion,  or  of  enlivened  imagination. 

Versification  is  the  arrangement  of  a  certain  number  of 
syllables,  according  to  particular  rules,  so  as  to  produce 
melody. 

Meter,  in  English,  consists  in  the  regular  return  of  the 
accent  at  regular  intervals.  Acc^t^  then,  is  essential  to 
verse ;  but  Rhyme  is  not,  since  '-rnere  may  be  a  regular 
return  of  accent,  or  syllables  simila'i^  affected,  without 
the  similarity  of  sound  which  produces  rhyme. 

Two  or  more  syllables,  grouped  together  by  accent, 
constitute  Vifoot,  or  measwe.  It  is  called  a  measiire^  be- 
cause, by  its  aid,  the  voice  steps  along,  as  it  were,  throftglr 
the  verse  in  a  measured  pace.  When  two  syllables  are 
thus  grouped  together,  it  is  called  dissyllabic  measure  ;  as, 

*^  With  rav  |  ished  ears, 

The  mon  |  arch  hears." 

But,  when  three  syllables  are  thus  grouped  together,  it 
is  trissyllahic  measure  ;  as, 

*'  I  am  mon  |  arch  of  all  [  I  survey." 

Several  measures,  or  feet,  properly  arranged,  form  a 
line,  or  verse.  A  verse,  then,  is  a  certain  number  of  con- 
nected feet  forming  one  line. 

A  Stanza  is  a  combination  of  several  verses,  varying 
in  number,  according  to  the  poet's  fancy,  and  constituting 
a  regular  division  of  a  poem  or  song. 

When  the  first  and  third  lines  of  a  stanza  contain  four 
Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  second  and  fourth  lines,  three 
feet  each,  it  is  Common  Meter, 

When  the  first,  second,  and  fourth  lilies  of  a  stanza  con- 
tain three  Iambic  feet  each,  and  the  third  line  four,  it  is 
Short  Metre. 


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BR  A  ^  so  Nf ,  l^^R  H  A.R  &  T  O.^ 
RALEIGH,  N.'  G. 


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